MACHADO DE ASSIS AND HIS LIRA CHINESA

In 1870, perhaps the most distinguished Brazilian writer, Machado de Assis, included in his volume of poems, Phalenas (Night Moths), a group of eight poems grouped together under the title: Lira Chinesa (Chinese Lyre).1

The poems were described, according to J. Galante de Sousa's Bibliografia de Machado de Assis2 by Machado de Assis in a note wherein he says that the poets imitated in the Collection are all contemporaries, and that he found them in a book published in 1868 [sic] by Judith Walter [pseudonym of Judith Gautier], a distinguished traveller who is said to have known Chinese Language profoundly. It is not clear whether he means that the poets are modern, and whether he implies that the French writer owed her knowledge of Chinese to travel. In any case, Tin-Tun-Sing** (or Tin-Tun-Ling) was a contemporary of Judith Gautier and the author of 0 Leque (The Fan), Tan-Jo-Lu [Ban Jieyu] 白居易 or Tan-Jo-Su, or Pan Chien-yü or Lady Pan, lived before the beginning of the Christian era.

In a recent study entitled Machado de Assis and Foreign Languages, Alberto I. Bagby, Júnior, concludes that the Brazilian writer "was nearly bilingual in Portuguese and French, possessed conversational ability in English and Spanish, and could read, write and translate in each of these Languages. As to his abilities in Italian, the classical Languages, and German, we have less concrete data, but all indications are that he could read and write but not speak Italian; that his mastery of Latin surpassed his understanding of Greek; that he had little knowledge of German."3

There is no suggestion that Machado de Assis was familiar with Chinese.

In view of the importance of French Language and Literature to Machado de Assis, and of the role played by French writers in making popular aspects of Far Eastern Literature to the nineteenth century world, an examination of French writers of that century is in order. 4 A convenient guide exists in William Leonard Schwartz's The imaginative interpretation of the Far East in modern French literature, 1800-1925. Schwartz characterizes Machado de Assis's source for the Lira Chinesa, Judith Gautier's Le Livre de Jade (The Book of Jade), as follows:

"Judith Gautier's Chinese studies with Ting-Tun-Ling, begun in 1863 at her father's suggestion, were prosecuted with such industry that she published four years later the Livre de Jade, a book of translations in rhythmical prose of ancient and modern Chinese Poetry. The publication of this book must have increased French interest in China a little, although copies of it have always been rare [...].

The originality of Judith Gautier's Livre de Jade lies in the literary treatment which she gave to the rendering of Chinese poetry, hither always presented in an erudite way. It seems certain, from the discrepancies to be noted between her translations and those of the scholar d' Hervey-Saint-Denys, that although Judith Gautier's work is based upon independent examination of the Chinese originals, she cared less for linguistic accuracy than for the reproduction of the passion of the Chinese poets. Thus the Livre de Jade belongs to French Literature, and to Sinology."

Schwartz's last statement suggests that Le Livre de Jade is primarily a work of French Literature; the Chinese element is merely motivational, and this seems to be true of the Lira Chinesa to an even greater degree, since there is no evidence that Machado de Assis derived inspiration from other works of Sinology for his versions.

The 1867 edition of Le Livre de Jade contains approximately seventy French prose versions of Chinese selections, divided into seven sections: [1.] Lovers, [2.] the Moon, [3.] Autumn, [4.] Travelers, [5.] Wine, [6.] War, [7.] Poets, and attributed to some twenty different names. Of the names represented in the Lira Chinesa, Machado de Assis's Han-Tiê [Wang Ji] 王绩 corresponds to Gautier's Ouan-Tié, his Tchê-Tsi to her Tché-Tsi, his Thu-Fu [Du Fu] 杜甫 to her Thou-Fou (or Dow Phu), his Tan-Jo-Lu to her Tan-Jo-Su, his Tchan-Tiú-Lin [Zhang Jiuling] 张九龄 to her Tchan-Tiou-Lin (or Chang-Chiu-Ling), his Tin-Tun-Sing to her Tin-Tun-Ling, his Su-Tchon to her Su-Tchon. Several of these changes are in the direction of changing French orthography to Portuguese tradition: Tchê for Tché, Thu and Fu for Thou and Fou, for example. The changes of Su to Lu and Ling to Sing suggest Machado de Assis's capital "S" and "L" were similar enough to make interpretation uncertain in the case of words unknown to the printer. The identification of poems and of poets, however, is not simple. With reference to the 1908 edition, Arthur Waley made the following comments, reproduced by Schwartz5 in his study:

"It has been difficult to compare these renderings with the original, for proper names are throughout distorted or interchanged. For example, part of a poem by Po Chu-i[Bai Juyi] 白居易 about Yang T'ai-Chen' [Yang Taichen] 杨太 as author. The poet Han-Yu [Hanyu] 韩愈figures as Heu-Yu; T'ao Han as Sao Nan, etc. Such mistakes are evidently due to faulty decipherment of someone else's writing. Nevertheless, the book is far more readable than that of Hervey-Saint-Denys, and shows a wider acquaintance with Chinese poetry on the part of whoever chose the poems. Most of the credit for this selection must certainly be given to Ting Tun-Ling, the literatus whom Théophile Gautier [sic] befriended. But the credit for the beauty of these often erroneous renderings must go to Mile Gautier herself."

Since readers may not have conveniently at hand the rare first edition of Gautier's work or the Lira Chinesa of Machado de Assis, we should like to quote both versions for the sake of easy comparison. For the Portuguese versions we rely on Machado de Assis: Obra Completa6 which is based on Poesias Completas: Phalenas.

One of the poems is presumably by the literatus mentioned by Schwartz, who was living in France at the time, Ting Tun-Ling(rather than Machado de Assis's Tin-Tun-Sing). [...]

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 7

"LES PETITES FLEURS SE MOQUENT DES GRAVES SAPINS (Ting Tun-Ling)

1. Sur le haut de la montagne, les sapins demeurent sérieux et hérissés;

Au bas de la montagne, les fleurs éclatantes s'étalent sur l'herbe.

2. En comparant leurs fraîches robes aux vêtements sombres des sapins, les petites fleurs se mettent à rire.

3. Et les papillons légers se mêlent à leur gaieté.

4. Mais, un matin d'automne, j'ai regardé la montagne: les sapins, tout habillés de blanc, étaient là, graves et rêveurs.

5. J'ai eu beau chercher au bas de la montagne, je n'ai pas vu le petites fleurs moqueuses."

Machado de Assis: 8

"AS FLÔRESE OS PINHEIROS (Tin-Tun-Sing)

1. Vi os pinheiros no alto da montanha Ouriçados e velhos;

E ao sopé da montanha, abrindo as flôres Os cálices vermelhos.

2. Contemplando os pinheiros da montanha, As flôres tresloucadas

Zombam dêles enchendo o espaço em tôrno

De alegres gargalhadas.

4. Quando o outono voltou, vi na montanha

Os meus pinheiros vivos,

Brancos de neve, e meneando ao vento

Os galhos pensativos.

5. Volvi o olhar ao sítio onde escutara

Os risos mofadores;

Procurei-as em vão; tinham morrido

As zombeteiras flôres."

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"THE LITTLE FLOWERS MAKE FUN OF THE SERIOUS PINE TREES. (According to Ting Tun-Ling)

1. On the top of the mountain, the pine trees dwell serious and rough; at the bottom of the mountain, the dazzling flowers stretch out of the grass.

2. As they compare their new dresses with the dark clothing of the pines, the little flowers begin do laugh.

3. And the wanton butterflies join in their gayety.

4. But, one autumn morning, I looked at the mountain: the pines, completely clad in white, were there, serious and pensive.

5. In vain I sought at the bottom of the mountain, I did not see the little flowers who made fun of the pines."

Machado de Assis:

"THE FLOWERS AND THE PINE TREES (Tin-Tun-Sing)

1. I saw the bristling and aged pine trees on the top of mountain; and at the bottom of the mountain, the flowers opening up their red calyxes.

2. Contemplating the pine trees on the mountain, the distraught flowers laugh at them filling the space around them with gay bursts of laughter.

4. When autumn returned, I saw on the mountain my pine trees alive, white with snow, and moving their pensive branches before the wind.

5. I turned my gaze to the place where I had heard the mocking laughter; I sought them in vain; the flowers that had laughed at the pine trees had died."

A comparison of the two versions shows that Machado de Assis at times introduces words for the sake of rhyme (e.g.: velhos and vermelhos in the first strophe), and that he tends to be faithful to the general sense, and express his thought clearly, relying less on suggestion than Mile Gautier. There can be little doubt that both versions display artistic merit and mastery of Language and medium on the part of both writers.

Another poem, of which the identification seems certain, is one about a lady's fan. The author of the original poem, a woman, is known as Ban Jieyu. Ban Jieyu is the title conterred upon this Imperial concubine, who lived during the Han Dynasty. [...]

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 9

"L'ÉVENTAIL (Selon Tan-Jo-Su)

1. La nouvelle épouse assise dans la Chambre Parfumeé, où l' époux est entré la veille pour la première fois.

2. Elle tient à la main son éventail où sont écrits caractères: "Quand l'air est étouffant et le vent immobile, on m'aime et l' on me demande la fraîcher; mais quand le vent se lève et quand l'air devient froid, on me dédaigne et l'on m'oublie."

3. En lisant ces caractères, la jeune femme songe à son époux, et déjà des pensées tristes l' enveloppent.

4. "Le coeur de mon époux est maintenant jeune et brûlant; mon époux vient près de moi pour rafraîchir son coeur;

5. Mais lorsque son coeur sera froid et tranquille, il me dédaignera peut-être et m'oubliera."

Machado de Assis: 10

"0 LEQUE (Tan-Jo-Lu)

1. Na perfumada alcova a espôsa estava, Noiva ainda na véspera. Fazia calor intenso; a pobre môça ardia, Com fino leque as faces refrescava.

2. Ora, no leque em boa letra feito Havia êste conceito: "Quando, imóvel o vento e o ar pesado, Arder o intenso estio, Serei por mão amiga ambicionado; Mas, volte o tempo frio, Ver-me-eis a um canto logo abandonado."

3. Lê a espôsa êste aviso, e o pensamento Volve ao jovem marido.

4. "Arde-lhe o coração neste momento (Diz ela) e vem buscar enternecido Brandas auras de amor.

5. Quando mais tarde. Tornar-se em cinza fria 0 fogo que hoje lhe arde, Talvez me esqueça e me desdenhe um dia."

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"THE FAN (According to Tan-Jo-Su):

1. The new wife is seated in the Perfumed Bedroom, where the husband entered for the first time that eve.

2. She has in her hand her fan on which are written these characters: "When the air is stifling the wind motionless, I am loved and my coolness is asked for; but when the wind moves and the air becomes cold, I am disdained and forgotten."

3. As she reads these characteres, the young woman thinks of her husband, and now sad thoughts envelop her.

4. "The heart of my husband is now young and ardent; my husband comes near me to refresh his heart;

5. But when his heart is cold and tranquil, perhaps he will disdain and forget me."

Machado de Assis: "THE FAN (Tan-Jo-Lu)

1. The wife was in the perfumed bedroom, still a bride the eve before. It was intensely hot; the poor young woman was burning, with a delicate fan she kept cooling her cheeks. [2.] Now, on the fan in clear letters this conceit there was formed: "When, the wind motionless and the air heavy, intense summer bums, I shall be desired by a friendly hand; but, let the cold weather return, you will see me at once abandoned to a comer."

3. The wife reads this warning, and her thought turns to her young husband. [4.] "At this moment his heart is burning (she says) and he comes tenderly to seek love's gentle zephyrs. [5.] When later the fire that is burning in him today turns to cold ashes, perhaps he will forget and disdain me one day."

The same impression is made by a comparison of these versions; a faithfulness of interpretation, with some of the Portuguese choice of words clearly due to the desire of the poet to find appropriate rhymes.

The first poem of the Lira Chinesa is brief and striking; I have not been able to identify the Chinese poet to whom it is attributed: Ouan-Tié in French, and Han-Tiê in Portuguese. Judging from some of the French transcriptions in other cases made by Mile Gautier, Wang seems a more probable selection than Han, but this remains guesswork.

The French and Portuguese versions are:

Gautier: 11

"UN POÉTE RIT DANS SON BATEAU(Selon Ouan-Tié)

1. Le petit lac pur et tranquille ressemble à une tasse remplie d'eau.

2. Sur ses rives, les bambous ont des formes de cabanes, et les arbres, au-dessus, font des toitures vertes.

3. Et les grands rochers pointus, posés au milieu des fleurs, ressemblent à des pagodes.

4. Je laisse mon bateau glisser doucement sur l'eau, et

5. je souris de voir la nature imiter ainsi les hommes."

Machado de Assis: 12

"O POETA A RIR(Han-Tiê)

1. Taça d'água parece o lago ameno;

2. Têm os bambus a forma de cabanas, Que as árvores em flor, mais altas, cobrem Com verdejantes tectos

3. As pontiagudas rochas entre flôres Dos pagodes o grave aspecto ostentam...

5. Faz-me rir ver-te assim, ó natureza, Cópia servil dos homens."

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"A POET LAUGHS IN HIS BOAT (According to Ouan-Tié)

1. The pure and calm tiny lake resembles a glass filled with water.

2. On its banks, the bamboos are shaped like cabins, and the trees, above, make green roofs.

3. And the large pointed rocks, set in the midst of the flowers, resemble pagodas.

4.5. I let my boat glide gently over the water, and I smile to see nature imitate men this way."

Machado de Assis:

"THE POET LAUGHING (Han-Tiê)

1. A glass of water does the agreeable lake appear: [2.] the bamboos are shaped like cabins, which the flowering trees, higher, cover with roofs that show green.

3. The sharp-pointed rocks amid flowers display the serious aspect of pagodas... [5.] It makes me laugh to see you like this, o nature, a slavish copy of men."

Machado de Assis has preserved almost everything essential about the poem except that the poet laughs from his boat."

Two of the poems are attributed to Du Fu (or Thu-Fu), known in English as Tu Fu. There exists an excellent study of the Poetry of this poet, which analyzes the translations from this writer (actual and purported) in Le Livre de jade, by William Hung. We quote from his A supplementary volume of notes for Tu Fu: China's Greatest Poet. 13

"Of the pseudo translations of Tu Fu those in Judith Walter (pseudonym of Judith Gautier), Le Livre de Jade14 sem to be the earliest. The book has several revised editions... and has translation in German [...] Italian [...] Portuguese, 15 English [...] and possibly in other Languages. The book gives fourteen poems16 attributed to Tu Fu.

Two of these are rather garbled translations of genuine poems. The rest can be said to represent only the creative imagination of a talented French lady at twenty-two. I cannot trace these twelve poems to any Chinese text among the genuine or even the pseudo poems in Tu Fu's Collection [...] The practice of selecting Tu Fu's poems by recasting them directly or indirectly from d'Hervey's genuine and Gautier's psendo translations－and sometimes adding new creations－seems to spread rather quickly."

Professor Hung, who has devoted much time and effort to this problem, we trust completely, so that we feel safe in saying that the poem on the Emperor, attributed to Du Fu, is pseudo or spurious, whereas the one on Reflections, on the Tchou River, reflects a genuine Chinese poem by that writer.

First we shall present the spurious poem in French and in Portuguese.

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 17

"L'EMPEREUR(Selon Thou-Fou)

1. Sur un trône d'or neuf, le Fils du Ciel, éblouissant de pierreries, est assis au milieu des Mandarins; il semble un soleil environné d'étoiles.

2. Les Mandarins parlent gravement de graves choses; mais la pensée de l'Empereur s'est enfuie par la fenêtre ouverte.

3. Dans sun pavilion de porcelaine, comme une fleur éclatante entourée de feuillage, l'Impératrice est assise au milieu de ses femmes.

4. Elle songe que son bien-aimé demeure trop longtemps au conseil, et, avec ennui, elle agite son éventail.

5. Une bouffée de parfums caresse le visage de l'Empereur.

6. "Ma bien-aimée d'un coup de son éventail m'envoie le parfum de sa bouche;" et l'Empereur, tout rayonnant de pierreries, marche vers le pavillon de percelaine, laissant se regarder en silence par les Mandarins étonnés."

Machado de Assis: 18 "0 IMPERADOR(Thu-Fu)

1. Olha. 0 Filho do Céu, em trono de ouro, E adornado com ricas pedrarias, Os Mandarins escuta:－um sol parece De estrêlas rodeado.

2. Os Mandarins discutem gravemente Cousas muito mais graves. E êle? Foge-lhe o pensamento inquieto e distraído Pela janela aberta.

3. Além, no pavilhão de porcelana, Entre donas gentis está sentada A Imperatriz, qual flor radiante e pura Entre viçosas fôlhas.

4. Pensa no amado espôso, arde por vê-lo. Prolonga-se-lhe a ausência, agita o leque...

5. Do imperador ao rosto um sôpro chega De recendente brisa.

6. "Vem dela êste perfume", diz, e abrindo Caminho ao pavilhão da amada espôsa, Deixa na sala, olhando-se em silêncio, Os mandarins pasmados."

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"THE EMPEROR (According to Thou-Fou)

1. On a throne of new gold, the Son of Heaven, resplendent with gems, is seated amidst the Mandarins; he seems like a sun surrounded by stars.

2. The Mandarins speak gravely of serious matters; but the thought of the Emperor has run off through the open window.

3. In her pavilion of porcelain, like a dazzling flower surrounded by foliage, the Empress is seated amidst her women.

4. She thinks that her beloved is tarrying too long in the council, and, with vexation, she waves her fan.

5. A whiff of perfume caresses the Emperor's countenance.

6. "My beloved with a wave of her fan sends me the perfume of her mouth;" and Emperor, all agleam with gems, marches toward the porcelain pavilion, leaving the astonished Mandarins to look at one another in silence."

Machado de Assis:

"THE EMPEROR (Thu-Fu)

1. Look. The Son of Heaven, on a throne of gold, and adorned with rich gems, listens to the Mandarins: - he looks like a sun surrounded with stars. [2.] The Mandarins discuss gravely matters much more serious. And he? His restless and distracted thought flees through the open window. [3.] Beyond, in the porcelain pavilion, among genteel ladies is seated the Empress, like a radiant and pure flower among lush leaves. [4.] She thinks of her beloved husband, she burns to see him, his absence is becoming overly long for her, she waves her fan... [5.] a puff of a breeze redolent with aroma reaches the countenance of the Emperor. [6.] "This perfume comes from her", he says, and making his way to the pavilion of his beloved wife, he leaves in the hall, looking at one another in silence, the dismayed Mandarins."

A comparison of the two prose versions in English shows how similar they are, and yet one corresponds to French prose, and the other to Portuguese verse.

The others, more authentically to be attributed to Du Fu, versions are:

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 19

"SUR LE FLEUVE TCHOU (Selon Thou-Fu)

1. Mon bateau glisse rapidement sur le fleuve, et je regarde dans l'eau.

2. Au-dessus est le grand ciel, où se promènent les nuages.

3. Le ciel est aussi dans le fleuve; quand un nuage passe sur la lune, je le vois passer dans l'eau;

4. Et je crois que mon bateau glisse sur le ciel.

5. Alors je que ma bien-aimée se reflète ainsi dans mon cœur."

Machado de Assis: 20

REFLEXOS (Thu-Fu)

1. Vou rio abaixo vogando No meu batel e ao luar: Nas claras águas fitando, Fitando o olhar.

2. Das águas vejo no fundo, Como por um branco véuIntenso, calmo, profundo, 0 azul do céu.

3.4. Nuvem que no céu flutua, Flutua n' água também; Se a lua cobre, á outra lua Cobri-la vem.

5. Da amante que me extasia, Assim, na ardente paixão, As raras graças copia Meu coração.

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"ON THE CHOU RIVER (According to Thou-Fou)

1. My boat glides rapidly over the river, and I look into the water.

2. Above is the great sky, where the clouds stroll.

3. The sky also is in the river; when a cloud passes over the moon, I see it pass in the water;

4. And I believe that my boat glides over the sky.

5. Then I think that my beloved reflects herself thus in my heart."

Machado de Assis:

"REFLECTIONS (Thu-Fu)

1. I go gliding down the river in my boat and by the light of the moon; fixing my glance, fixing my glance on the clear waters.

2. I see into the depth of the waters, as through a white veil intense, calm, profound, the blue of the sky.

3. 4. A cloud that floats in the sky, floats also in the water; if it covers the moon, it comes to cover the other moon.

5. Thus, in burning passion, my heart copies the rare graces of the lover who makes me ecstatic."

While the thought of this poem is fairly clear, the Portuguese verses seem slightly less free than French prose. The repetition of the word fitando, the addition of words like intenso, calmo, profundo," (intense, calm, profound,') gives the impression of vigor which does not harmonize with the languid understatement of Mlle Gautier's version. It may be that this change in tone is not a flaw in the Portuguese version, but it is my feeling that in his other versions, Machado de Assis has captured not only the ideas, but also the general mood of the French original.

Another of these poems seems to correspond to one attributed to Wang Chi [Wang Ji]王绩 and entitled The Jewel, in English versions which have been printed in D. J. Klemer's Chinese Love Poems21 and in Chinese Love Poems from Most Ancient to Modern Times. 22 We present the French and Portuguese versions which, as will be noted, are attributed to Tché-Tsi or Tchê-Tsi, in which the second syllable fits fairly well an attribution to Wang Ji.

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 23

"A LA PLUS BELLE FEMME DU BATEAU DES FLEURS(Selon Tché-Tsi)

1. Je t' ai chanté de chansons en m'accompagnant de ma flûte d' ébène, des chansons oú je te racontais ma tristesse; [2.] mais tu ne m' as pas écouté.

3. J' ai composé des vers où je célébrais ta beauté; [4.] mais en balançãnt la tête tu as jeté dans l'eau les feuilles glorieuses où j'avais tracé des caractéres.

5 Alors je t'ai donné un gros saphir, un saphir pareil au ciel nocturne, et, en échange du saphir obscur, tu m'as montré les petites perles de ta bouche."

Machado de Assis: 24

"A UMA MULHER(Tchê-Tsi)

1. Cantigas modulei ao som da flauta, Da minha flauta d' ébano. Nelas minh' alma segredava à tua Fundas, sentidas mágoas.

2. Cerraste-me os ouvidos. Namorados,

3. Versos compus de júbilo, Por celebrar teu nome, as graças tuas, Levar teu nome aos séculos.

4. Olhaste, e, meneando a airosa frente, Com tuas mãos puríssimas, Fôlhas em que escrevi meus pobres versos Lançaste às ondas trêmulas.

5. Busquei então por encantar tu'alma Uma safira esplêndida, Fui depô-la a teus pés... tu descerraste Da tua bôca as pérolas."

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"TO THE MOST BEAUTIFUL WOMAN OF THE FLOWER BOAT (According to Tché-Tsi)

1. I sung to you songs accompanying myself on my ebony flute, songs in which I told you of my sadness; [2.] but you did not listen to me.

3. I have composed verses in which I celebrated your beauty; but in swinging your head, you threw into the water the glorious [4.] leaves on which I had traced some characters.

5. Then I gave you a huge sapphire, a sapphire like the night sky, and, in exchange for the dark sapphire, you showed me the tiny pearls of you mouth."

Machado de Assis:

"TO A WOMAN (Tchê-Tsi)

1. I sang songs accompanied by the flute, by my ebony flute; in them my soul whispered to yours deep, heart-felt sorrows.

2. You closed your ears to me. [3.] I composed loving joyous verses to celebrate your name, your graces, to carry your name to the centuries.

4. You looked, and, shaking your comely head, with your hands most pure, threw into the trembling waves leaves on which I had written my poor verses.

5. I then sought in order to enchant your soul a splendid sapphire, I went to place it at your feet... you opened up the pearls of your mouth."

In a comparison of the two versions we note again the use of a shorter, less specific title on the part of Machado de Assis; a reader would have no idea that the woman addressed was a beauty on a 'flower boat'. It is, of course, possible that some sense of modesty made Machado de Assis desire not to indicate that the woman addressed was a 'beauty' on a 'flower boat', if indeed, he understood the expression, which corresponds to the Chinese compound, hua ch'uan [hua chuan]花船 literally 'flower boat,' but meaning 'a floating brothel'. In any case, the lack of response and understanding on the part of the woman addressed is clear.

Whether or not the elimination of the 'flower boat' detail makes the poem less culturally relevant, it is certain that the change of the word for characters to the vaguer word for verses makes the Portuguese poem less immediately suggestive of Chinese culture.

The seventh poem to be considered seems to be attributed fairly clearly by Mile Gautier to Zhang Jiuling, who lived in the years 673-740. Its subject is the leaf from the willow tree.

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 25

"LA FEUILIE DE SAULE (Selon Tchan-Tiou-Lin)

1. La jeune femme qui rêve accoudée à sa fenêtre, je ne l'aime pas à cause de la maison somptueuse qu' elle possède au bord du Fleuve Jaune;

2. Mais je l'aime parce qu'elle à laissé tomber à l'eau une petite feuille de saule.

3. Je n'aime pas la brise de l'est parce qu'elle m'apporte le parfum des pêchers en fleurs qui blanchissent la Montagne Orientale;

4. Mais je l'aime parce qu'elle à poussé du côté de mon bateau le petite feuille de saule.

5. Et la petite feuille de saule, je ne l'aime pas parce qu'elle me rappelle le tendre printemps qui vient de refleurir;

6. Mais je l'aime parce que la jeune femme à écrit un nom dessus avec la pointe de son aiguille à broder, et que se nom, c'est le mien."

Machado de Assis: 26

"A FOLHA DO SALGUEIRO (Tchan-Tiú-Lin)

1. Amo aquela formosa e terna môça Que, à janela encosta, arfa e suspira; Não porque tem do largo rio à margemCasa faustosa e bela.

2. Amo-a, porque deixou das mãos mimosas Verde fôlha cair nas mansas águas.

3. Amo a brisa de leste que sussurra, Não porque traz nas asas delicadas O perfume dos verdes pessegueiros Da oriental montaha.

4. Amo-a porque impeliu co'as tênues asas Ao meu batel a abandonada fôlha.

5. Se amo, a mimosa fôlha aqui trazida, Não é porque me lembre à alma e aos olhos A renascente, a amável primavera, Pompa e vigor dos vales.

6. Amo a fôlha por ver-lhe um nome escrito. Escrito, sim, por ela, e êsse... é meu nome."

Among the most noteworthy differences is the ross of definiteness of the geographical references; the "Fleuve Jaune" in the French is the specific Yellow River, and the "Montagne Orientale" also suggests a definite place, whereas in the Portuguese poem, it is simply "o largo rio", "the broad river", and, "Da montanha oriental", "the Tung Shan". To make clear the difference, in our English version of the French original, we include the Chinese equivalents for these places, since they are attested geographical names. The nature of Chinese writing makes it difficult sometimes to distinguished personal and place names.

English prose versions follow:

Gautier:

"THE WILLOW TREE LEAF (According to Tchan-Tiou-Lin)

1. The young woman who is dreaming leaning at her window, I do not love because of the elegant house that she possesses on the bank of the Huang Ho [Huang He] 黄河 (Yellow River);

2. But I love her because she has dropped into the water a tiny willow tree leaf.

3. I do not love the breeze from the East because it bears to me the perfume of the flowering peach trees which make the Tung Shan [Dong Shan] 东山 (Eastern Mountain) while;

4. But I love her because she has pushed the little willow tree leaf beside my boat.

5. And the tiny willow tree leaf, I do not love because it recalls to me the gentle spring which has just flowered again;

6. But I love it because the young woman has written a name on it with the point of her embroidering needle, and because that name is mine."

Machado de Assis:

THE LEAF OF THE WILLOW TREE (Tchan-Tiú-Lin)

1. I love that beautiful and gentle maiden who, leaning at her window, gasps and sighs; not because she has at the edge of the broad river an elegant and beautiful house.

2. I love her, because she dropped into the gentle waters a green leaf from her dainty hands.

3. I love the breeze of the east that rustles, not because it brings on its slender wings the perfume of the green peach-trees on the Eastern Mountain. [4.] I love it because it pushed with its tenuous wings to my boat the abandoned leaf.

5. If I love the delicate leaf brought here, it is not because of its bringing to my heart and eyes the renascent, delightful spring, pride and vigour of the valleys.

6. I love the leaf because of seeing a name written on it, written, yes, by her, and it... is my name."

The use of the embroidering needle to write the poet's name is a detail in the Chinese poem as rendered by Mile Gautier that is absent from the Portuguese version; Machado de Assis's addition of the phrase "Pompa e vigor dos vales" ("pride and vigour of the valleys") strikes this reader as slightly excessive.

All in all, however, this Portuguese version must be counted as successful. It is possible, too, that a Brazilian reader would be less apt, in 1870, to have an interest in the Chinese background sufficient to make effective such realistic detail as is presented by Mile Gautier, the suggestion of specific place names or the needle used for embroidering. It might, perhaps, also be argued that the last mentioned detail would seem particularly appropriate for a woman writing, and less so for a man.

Identification of the eight poem included in the Lira Chinesa with respect to Chinese author has not been possible. Of the poems in Le Livre de Jade, one is attributed to Su-Tchon and another to Li-Su-Tchon. Whether or not Su-Tchon [Suxun] 苏浔 and Li-Su-Tchon [Li Suxun]李苏洵 represent one poet is a problem. In this case, Machado de Assis's title is longer and more specific than Mile Gautiers's.

[The French and Portuguese versions are:]

Gautier: 27

"LE CŒUR TRISTE AU SOLEIL (Selon Su-Tchon)

1. Le vent d'automme arrache les feuilles desarbres et les disperse sur la terre.

2. Je les regarde s'envoler sans regret, car seulje les ai vues venir, et seul je les vois partir.

3. La tristesse projette son ombre sur mon cœur, comme les hautes montagnes font la nuit dansla vallée.

4. Les souffles d'hiver changent l'eau en pierre brillante; mais au premier regard de l' été elle redeviendra cascade joyeuse.

5. Quand l' été será de retour, j' irai m' asseoir sur la plus haute roche, pour voir si le soleil fera fondre mon cœur."

Machado de Assis: 28

"CORAÇÃO TRISTE FALANDO AO SOL(Su-Tchon)

1. No arvoredo sussurra o vendaval do outono. Deita as fôlhas à terra, onde não há florir,

2. E eu contemplo sem pena êsse triste abandono, Só eu as vi nascer, vejo-as só eu cair.

3. Como a escura montanha, esguia e pavorosa, Faz, quando o sol descamba, o vale enoitecer, Esta montanha da alma, a tristeza amorosa, Também de ignota sombra enche todo o meu ser.

4. Transforma o frio inverno a água em pedra dura, Mas torna a pedra em água um raio de verão;

5. Vem, ó sol, vem, assume o tronco teu na altura, Vê se podes fundir meu triste coração."

English prose versions follow.

Gautier:

"THE SAD HEART TO THE SUN (According to Su-Tchon)

1. The Autumn wind removes the leaves from the trees and disperses them on the land.

2. I look at them being carried away without regret, for alone I have seen them come, and alone I see them leave.

3. Sadness projects its shadow over my heart, as the high mountains cause night in the valley.

4. The gusts of Winter change water into a shining rock; but at the first glance of summer it will become again a joyous rivulet.

5. When the Summer is back, I shall go take my seat on the highest rock, to see if the sun will cause my heart to melt."

Machado de Assis: "SAD HEART SPEAKING TO THE SUN (Su-Tchon)

1. In the forest grove rustles the Autumn gale, it leaves the leaves on the ground, where there is nothing in flower, [2.] and I contemplate without sadness that sorry abandonment, I saw them being born alone, and I see them fall alone.

3. As the dark mountain, tall and frightful, when the sun sinks down, brings night to the valley, this mountain of the soul, the sadness of love also fills my whole being with an unknown shadow.

4. Cold Winter transforms water into a hard rock, but a Summer's beam turns the rock into water; [5.] come, o sun, come, assume thy throne on high, see if thou art able to melt my sad heart."

The bold personification in the Portuguese poem at the close of the final strophe may seem more characteristic of Western than of Eastern Poetry, and a comparison with Mile Gautier here shows a more characteristic Eastern expression. It is my impression that to apostrophize the sun here betrays the Western point of view of Machado de Assis; at the same time, it gives a dramatic quality and a power that are impossible to deny, Both versions omit mention of the season of Spring, which may seem curious, but that this detail stands out in them shows that the significant content is the same.

To sum up, Machado de Assis's versions show a sensitivity to poetic Language, though he westernizes Chinese aspects of the poem at times. It is curious that the French prose at times leaves more to a reader's imagination than the Portuguese verse; this may be related to the greater degree of westernization of the Brazilian poet.

Machado de Assis's name occupies an honorable place in the list of translators of Judith Gautier's French prosifications, and readers may well be grateful to her as the source of his experiments in translating Chinese Poetry into Portuguese.

It is unfortunate that scholars do not yet seem to have been able to encounter specific sources for all the selections in Le Livre de Jade; perhaps readers of the "Boletim do Instituto Luís de Camões" may have the knowledge necessary to correct and amplify views and statements made by me in this paper, which, if it has merit at all, I should like to dedicate to the memory of Luís Gonzaga Gomes, late editor of the "Boletim", whose inspiration lives on. ***

CHINESE GLOSSARY

Bai Juyi [Po chu-i]. 白居易

Ban Jieyu [Pan Chien-yü; Tan-Jo-Lu; Tan-Jo-Su] (Pan Dsiedwe)

班婕妤

Chang-Chiu-Ling - see: Zhang Jiuling.

Dong Shan [Tung Shan]东山

Du Fu [Thou-Fu; Thu-Fu; Tu Fu]杜甫

Hanyu [Han-Yu; Heu-Yu]韩愈

Han-Yu - see: Hanyu.

Han-Tiê - see: Wang Ji.

Heu-Yu - see: Hanyu.

hua ch'uan - see: hua chuan.

hua chuan [hua ch'uan]花船

Huang He [Huang Ho]黄河

Huang Ho - see: Huang He.

Suxun [Su-Tchon]苏浔

Li Suxun [Li-Su-Tchon]李苏洵

Li-Su-Tchon - see: Li Suxun.

Pan Chien-yü - see: Ban Jieyu.

Pan Dsiedwe (lady) - see: Ban Jieyu.

Po Chu-i - see: Bai Juyi

Su-Tchon - see: Suxun.

Tan-Jo-Lu - see: Ban Jieyu.

Tan-Jo-Suy - see: Ban Jieyu.

Tchan-Tiou-Lin - see: Zhang Jiuling.

Tchan-Tiú-Lin - see: Zhang Jiuling.

Thou-Fu - see: Dupu; Thu-Fu - see: Du Fu. Tu Fu - see:

DuFu.

Tung Shan - see: Dong Shan.

Wang Chi - see: Wang Ji.

Wang Ji [Han-Tiê; Ouan-Tié; Wang Chi]王绩

Yang T'ai Chen - see: Yang T'ai Chen.

Yang Taichen [Yang T'ai Chen]杨太织

Zhang Jiuling [Chang-Chiu-Ling; Tchan-Tiou-Lin; Tchan-Tiú-Lin]张九龄

NOTES

** Revised transliterations of Chinese, names were transcribed from the original text as spelled. Whenever possible, matching pinyin transliterations appear in straight parenthesis [ ] following the original transliterations when they first appear, thereinafter always in pinyin. When it was impossible to ascertain an exact name, there were left in their corresponding characters (and marked with a double asterix**) no corresponding characters being provided in the Chinese Glossary, alphabetically listed according to the pinyin transliterations.

*** Revised Reprint from: KNOWLTON Jr., Edgar Colby, Machado de Assis and His "Lira Chinesa", in "Boletim do Instituto Luís de Camões", Macau, 10 (3-4) Outono-Inverno [Autumn-Winter] 1976, pp.165-183.

1 ASSIS, Machado de, Phalenas, Rio de Janeiro, Gamier, 1870.

2 SOUSA, J. Galante de, Bibliografia de Machado de Assis, Rio de Janeiro, Ministério da Educação e Cultura, Instituto Nacional do Livro, 1955, p.445.

3 BAGBY Jr., Alberto I., Machado de Assis and Foreign Languages, in "Luso-Brazilian Review", 12 (2) Winter 1975, pp.230-231.

4 SCHWARTZ, William Leonard, The imaginative interpretation of the Far East in modern French Literature: 1800-1925, Paris, Librairie Ancienne Honoré Champion, 1927, pp.46-49.

5 Idem., p.47.

6 ASSIS, Machado de, Obra completa, Rio de Janeiro, Aguilar, 1973, vol.3, pp.53-56.

7 GAUTIER, Judith, Le Livre de Jade, Paris, Lemerre, 1867, pp.81-82.

8 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., pp.55-56.

9 GAUTIER, Judith, op. cit., pp.31 -32.

10 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., pp.54-55.

11 GAUTIER, Judith, op. cit., pp.147-148.

12 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., pp.53-54.

13 HUNG, William, A supplementary volume of notes for Tu Fu: China's Greatest Poet, Cambridge/Massassuchetts, Harvard University Press, 1952, pp.10-11.

14 GAUTIER, Judith, op. cit.

15 GAUTIER, Judith, FEIJÓ, António Castro, trans., O livro de jade, Lisboa, 1890.

16 GAUTIER, 1867, poems XVIII and CXLIII, pp.53-54 and pp.119-124, respectivelly

17 Idem., pp.15-16.

18 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., p.54.

19 GAUTIER, 1867, op. cit., pp.25-26.

20 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., p.56.

21 KLEMER, D. J., Chinese Love Poems, Garden City/New York, Honover Houser, 1959, p.43.

22 KLEMER, D. J., Chinese Love Poems from Most Ancient to Modern Times, Mt. Vernon/New York, The Peter Pauper Press, 1954, p.29.

23 GAUTIER, 1867, op. cit., pp.33-34.

24 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., p.53.

25 GAUTIER, 1867, op. cit., pp.5-6.

26 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., p.55.

27 GAUTIER, 1867, op. cit., pp.73-74.

28 ASSIS, 1973, op. cit., p.56.

* Ph. D in Linguists, from the University of Stanford, California. Professor Emeritus in Europen Languages by the University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Executive Director and Acting Program Director of the Hawaii Council on Portuguese Heritage, Honolulu. Author of A Ásia Portuguesa revelada nos 'Lusíadas' e na 'Malaca conquistada' and A Presença Portuguesa no Havai antes de 1878, and numerous articles and publications.