AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE CITY OF MACAO
DURING THE MING DYNASTY•

[INTRODUCTION]

The emergence of Macao is a topic of special interest in the history of the development of the cities of East Asia. A small "Island" at the tip of the promontory of Xiangshan~L. suddenly developed in the space of a very few decades into a convergence point for world trade, an international trading city where commodities from the four corners of the earth exchanged hands. By means of textual research, this paper charts the course of the early development and construction of the city of Macao during the Ming~L. dynasty. 1

~$S 1. THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE URBAN AREA OF MACAO

In Jiajing~L. reign, year thirty-three [JJ33 = 1561], following a verbal Agreement between the Portuguese Captain-Major Leonel de Sousa and the haidaofushi~L. (Port.: Ait~~ao; or Deputy Superintendent of Maritime Affairs), of Guangdong~L., Wang Bo~L., the peninsula of Macao was opened to foreign trade fleets, and the status of Macao as a trading post and residential community for merchants from all over the world was formally initiated. What, then, were the conditions attached to the concession which Wang Bo granted the Portuguese? No documents which survive today are available to supply explicit evidence. According to certain relevant documents, however, it appears that Wang Bo opened up Macao to foreign traders on a limited basis only. Therefore, when merchants from overseas first arrived at the shore in Macao, there were "[...] only a few dozen shacks."2 Later, it seems that the foreign merchants realised that the Ming dynasty Officials stationed in Macao were not exercising strict control over Macao, and began to engage in bribery to force through permission to build roofed houses on the peninsula. Wang Shixing~L. comments on the situation at that time:

“They [the foreign merchants] at first stayed in their boats; later, when they realised that the merchandise took some time to sell, a few went ashore and erected huts. Other merchants gradually followed their lead."3

When the trading port was first established, the foreign traders who came to Macao all slept aboard their boats. Later on, a few individuals took the initiative of going ashore and building houses in which to stay. Since the Ming Officials in Macao did not prevent them from doing so, they "[...] tentatively stayed for longer periods [...],"4 so that"[...] other merchants gradually followed their lead [...]."5 The merchants began to build their own residences and storehouses ashore, which made it easier for them to trade. It is recorded in the Aomen jil~#ue~L. (Monograph of Macao) that:

"[...] the merchants illicitly transported, little by little, bricks, wood and tiles to build with."6

According to Pang Shangpeng: ~L.

"A few years previously, [the Macanese and foreigners] had begun to reside in houses at Haojing."~L.7

Pang wrote this in the winter of Jiajing reign, year thirty-six [JJ 36 = 1564]. "A few years previously [...]" may be estimated to be between three and seven years prior to that date, namely from Jiajing reign, year thirty-six to Jiajing reign, year forty-one [JJ 36 = 1557 - JJ 41 = 1562]. It can be deduced from this that the buildings of merchants' settlements must have begun to appear in 1557 at the earliest. The urban area of Macao began to be built during this time: 1557-1562.

The urban area of Macao developed very rapidly. Pang Shangpeng wrote that:

"In less than a year several hundred qu~L. [quarters] were established; now there are more than one-thousand."8

"Quarters", in this sense, means simply a house. During the year after building first started there were already several hundred houses, but by 1564 there were already one-thousand. Assuming that each foreign merchant built his own house, then at this time more than one-thousand foreign merchants must have been resident in Macao. Ye Quan~L., who travelled to Macao in 1565, noted that:

"Several thousand foreigners are resident in the whole of Macao, which is certainly a sizeable city."9

During this period, the population of Macao was recorded as eight hundred in 1562 and nine-hundred in 1565, 10 but these eight-hundred or nine-hundred people who settled in Macao were all Portuguese, and all Portuguese at that time were in possession of slave labourers. According to Ant~'onio Bocarro,~L. every Portuguese had between six and ten servants.11 Another source maintains that in 1569, there were five-thousand to six-thousand Catholics in Macao.12 If each Portuguese had six servants on average, then the combined total of all the Portuguese and their servants is consistent with this figure. This was reported by Chinese writers of the time, such as Pang Shangpeng:

"It is not known how many houses there, but the number of foreigners may exceed ten-thousand."13

Wu Guifang~L. wrote:

"[...] there are no fewer than ten thousand people of non-Chinese nationality."14

The figure of "ten-thousand" presumably also included the Chinese who were in Macao at the time. Subtracting the six-thousand foreign merchants and their servants from that figure suggests that there were approximately four-thousand Chinese in Macao. This was the original composition of the population of the city of Macao. As trade between Macao and the rest of the world flourished, Macao became:

"[...] one of the most famous cities in the Far East, since valuable commodities of all kinds and in large quantities were distributed all over the world from there; immense wealth was to be found there. The city was more populous and more affluent than any other city in the country."15

It was not only trade with the outside world which developed; trade with Chinese merchants within the city also progressed. The Folangji zhuan~L. (Notes on the Portuguese) in the Mingshi~L. (Ming History) recorded that:

"Traders from Fujian~L. and Guangdong~L. scrambled like a flock of geese to come here."16

In his account of the reign of the Ming dynasty Emperor Wanli,~L. Guo Shangbin~L. wrote that:

"Desperados fled from Fujian and Guangdong, and engaged freely in illicit trade for their own advantage. They usually brought grains, rice, produce, livestock and other commodities for the foreigners from Guangzhou to Macao, and even more frequently smuggled rice to Macao to sell to the foreigners. Knives, saltpetre, sulphur, rifles and bullets from Guangzhou were much in demand for use by the foreigners. These items were not usually bought and smuggled into Macao for sale; more typically, they set up a means of producing them within the city, directly for the foreigners. Furthermore, innumerable men and women were seized and sold to foreigners in exchange for goods. It was especially common for people to hide in the city of Macao, where the foreigners could conceal them as if behind a curtain."17

These sources show that Macao was more than simply a trading post of the Portuguese between Japan and the Philippines; trade within Macao with the Chinese also flourished: it was already a mixed city of Chinese and foreigners.

The appearance of residential areas and markets led to the establishment of streets and roads. According to Jos~'e Maria Braga,~L. in 1555 the Portuguese started carrying out surveys in preparation for construction. The routes encompassed by these surveys extended from the area in front of the Mage miao (Ama Temple), ~L. via the Wanli changcheng~L. (Great Wall) and Gaolou jie~L. (Gaolou Street), Fengshuntang jie~L. (Fengshun Temple Street) and Longsong zhengjie~L. (Longsong Street), to the Igreja de S~~ao Paulo~L. (St. Paul's Church), and back to the Hill {sic}of S~~ao Francisco~L.(St. Francis [presentely the Jardim de S~~ao Francisco (St. ~&o Francis Garden)]). These thoroughfares were all paved with shizi~L. (lit.: cross paviours; or cobblestones).18 The first road to be built in Macao was called Shizi dajie~L. (Cross Street), a crossroads which "[...] connected roads in four directions." Guo Fei~L. wrote in fascicule 69 of Guangdong tongzhi~L. (Guangdong Records) that:

“Governor Chen again submitted a Memorial to the Emperor, asking that a crossroads in the residential area, lined with railings, be named by the four ideograms W~_ei, W~_ei, Huai and De and the houses on either side entered into the register separately. The houses which lined the roads were each to be designated one of twenty ideograms from a passage in the L~#uao,~L. ten ideograms for houses on the East side and ten for houses on the West, so that the residents would maintain order and be free from crime. All the foreigners agreed with this Decree."19

This street was in fact the junction of two roads, one running North-South and the other East-West. The four roads leading from it were named W~`eizi jie,~L. W~_ezi jie,~L. Huaizi jie~L. and Dezi jie~L. respectively by the Ming authorities. Originally, the crossroads had been the location of exclusively foreign residences, but as more and more Chinese merchants moved into Macao, by Wanli reign, year thirty-three (Yisi)~L. [WL 33 = 1605], Chinese traders settled in Dezi jie (Dezi Street), and by Chongzhen~L. reign, year two(Jiyi)~L. [CZ 2 = 1629], Chinese settlements had spread further into Huaizi Street also. There is historical textual evidence of this in an inscription on a crossbeam in the Shenshan diyi~L. (First Hall of the Holy Mountain) of the Ama Temple:

“Built by the merchants of Dezi jie [Dezi Street] in year Yisi [1605] of the reign of the Wanli Emperor in the Ming dynasty. Rebuilt by the merchants of Huaide Second Street in year Jisi [ 1629] of the reign of Chongzhen Emperor."20

These historical sources not only constitute persuasive evidence that during the Wanli period (r.1573-~+|1620) of the Ming dynasty there was already a major cross-roads in Macao; they also prove that by the end of the Ming dynasty, Chinese merchants made up at least half the population of these avenues, besides the foreign merchants. All those who contributed funds to build the Ama Temple were Chinese.

At what time did this street first come into existence? The "Governor Chen" in Guo Fei's work refers to Chen Rui,~L. zongdu~L. (Viceroy) of Liangguang~L. (Guangdong and Guangxi). According to fascicule 10 of Guo Fei's Guangdong tongzhi (Guangdong Records), Chen Duan came from Changle,~L. and "[...] in Wanli reign, year nine [WL 9 =1582] was appointed to serve simultaneously as Minister of War and Imperial Deputy Inspector, [...]"21 Viceroy of Liangguang (Guangdong and Guangxi).~L. We know that the first main crossroads to exist in Macao's history appeared before Wanli reign, year nine [WL 9 = 1581] in the Ming dynasty. Zhang Zengming,~L. a senior scholar of Macao, writes in his study of the history of streets in Macao that:

“Macao Avenue was originally known simply as the main street: to this day it is the main commercial street, known as Avenida do Largo [Port.; lit.: Avenue of the Square]. In olden times there were two gates on either side of this street. The gate to the East was known as Shizamen~L. (Stone Gate) and the one to the west as Hongchuangmen~L. (lit.: Red Window Gate), which served as the Hebo (Chinese Customs Commissioners) Houses. This explains the presence today of Frente da Alf~^andega~L. [Port.; lit.: 'Customs' frontage'] outside the Stone Gate and explains why Red Window Gate is translated into Portuguese as Rua da Alf~^andega~L. [lit.: 'Custom's Street']. Two large Chinese characters for 'Ao Men' ['Ma-cao'] used to be carved on the wall inside the Li family courtyard, suggesting that the city of Macao began beyond this point. The two characters have since been erased and are not in evidence today. This delimited the urban area of Macao at that time."22

Additionally, Beatriz Basto da Silva notes in her Cronologia de Macau~L. (Chronology of the History of Macao) that:

“[...] from 1573 to 1575, there was a main thoroughfare in Macao with wooden fences built on both sides, with roads leading off to four other districts."23

This evidence should be sufficient to reflect the layout of roads in Macao in the early years of the Wanli period. As commerce continued to flourish in Macao, so the numbers of people who immigrated and settled in Macao increased and the road network expanded accordingly. According to Fr. Domingos Lam,~L. at the beginning of the sixteenth century today's Longsong Street was already part of the commercial centre of the city, called Rua Central (Central Street). At that time, Longsong Street was inhabited mostly by Officials and noblemen.24 Towards the end of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the seventeenth, increased numbers of Japanese settled in Macao. Wang Yining~L. wrote in his Qing juanshui shu~L. (Memorial Presented to the Emperor Concerning the Reduction of Taxes):

“Under the pretext of necessary defence, [Macao] brought in at least two or three-thousand Japanese to act as servants."25

In his writing on Haifeng~L. (Maritime Defence), Wang writes further that:

“The foreigners in Macao came from various countries, Japan amongst them, beginning from Wanli reign year twenty."26

It was after Wanli reign, year twenty [WL 20 = 1592] that Japanese began settling in Macao, because in 1587 the Japanese Government "[...] issued an Order to expel all missionaries, and forbade belief in Catholicism."27 After 1597, when the Japanese Emperor Toyotomi Hideyoshi~L. had put to death by crucifixion twenty-six missionaries and Japanese Catholics, 28 a large number of Japanese Catholics fled to Macao. On 27th of January 1614, the then Emperor Tokugawa Ieyasu~L. once again ordered all missionaries to leave Japan. The Japanese Catholics boarded five large ships, of which two went to Manila and three to Macao and Siam [presently, Thailand]. In 1636 a further two-hundred and eighty-seven Japanese women who had married Portuguese and their children, were exiled in Macao.29 This group of Japanese settled mostly in the area surrounding the St. Paul's Gate. {sic}

“Amongst them were a number of architects and artists. The Jesuits took full advantage of this, and offered them work to support them. They called on the Japanese Catholics to build a Church [i. e., St. Paul's] with a great stone fa~'cade."30

According to Charles Ralph Boxer's' ~L. account:

“Because of a sudden upsurge in the influx of Japanese refugees and exiles in 1614, 1626 and 1636, the Japanese Catholics in Macao naturally established their own residential street, except for those who were the wives or servants of Portuguese, and merchants and priests."31

The quarter which was inhabited chiefly by Japanese Catholics became the Rua de S~~ao Paulo~L. (St. Paul's Street). In 1615, qianjiansi~L. (Inspector) Tian Shenglin~L. wrote in a Bianwen jin yifeiqiu shu~L. (Report on Pity for Criminal Suspects) that:

“The three suspects, named Matayuluo, Matazhiluo and Bishiluo [Chinese transcriptions of Japanese names] confessed that they and a fourth person Jianguluo were all from Pusan in Korea, and that they had been sold to foreigners when young to foreigners and taken to Xiangshan'ao~L. [Xiangshan Bay; i. e., Macao] in Guangdong where they all settled in lower St. Paul's Street."32

Construction of St. Paul's Church started in 1602 and was completed in 1603, although the fa~'cade was not completed until 1637 and its stone staircase not until 1640, hence the division between lower Rua de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul's Street) and upper Cal~'cada St. Paul's Street (St. Paul's Lane). This, then, was the quarter of Macao in which the Japanese Catholics settled. The Japanese who settled in this area constructed a seminary in 1623. 33 In addition to the Japanese quarter, a Chinese quarter established itself in the latter part of the Wanli period of the Ming dynasty. Charles Ralph Boxer wrote:

“In 1634, when the news reached Macao that the Duke of Braganza was to accede to the Portuguese throne after King Dom Jo~~ao IV, the citizens organised several weeks of festivities to celebrate the accession of the new King, especially in the districts where the Chinese and Japanese Catholics resided."34

A source from 1689 suggests that at that time Macao was divided into three parishes: S~'e (Cathedral), S~~ao Louren~'co (St. Lawrence's) and Santo Ant~'onio (St. Anthony's). 35 The appearance of these parishes on a 1632 Mapa de Macau (Map of Macao) shows they were already established at the end of the Ming dynasty. 36

Manuel Godinho de Er~'edia~L. compiled a Mapa de Macau (Map of Macao) between approximately 1615 and 1622. On the map it is clear that "Macau", the urban area of Macao which the Portuguese were leasing, was mostly located towards the middle part of the Macao peninsula, near Nanwan.~L. The South-Western and North-Eastern parts of the peninsula were controlled by Chinese officials.37 On an early Map of Macao dating from 1665, which is preserved in The Hague,~L. Holland, clusters of buildings appear throughout the middle and Southern parts of the peninsula. Separating the clusters are roads crisscrossing in a grid pattern. The Map [...] also shows some twenty main groups of buildings, where the streets are difficult to count exactly."38 This shows that from the beginning to the middle years of the seventeenth century before the fall of the Ming dynasty, Macao had already undergone significant expansion and development.

According to the Written Report [...] of Ant~'onio Bocarro~L. in 1635, the city occupied an area with a circumference of approximately half a mile, being fifty paces wide at the narrowest point and three hundred and fifty paces at the widest.39 At this time the population was increasing even more rapidly. In 1597, Wang Shixing wrote:

“Now there are tall houses and high buildings in the city, with a total of ten-thousand residences."40

Population was counted in households at that time. At the end of the sixteenth century, then, there were ten thousand households in the the city. In 1601, Wang Linheng~L. visited Macao and wrote:

“It is said that the present population of Macao is ten-thousand households, such that the population is in excess of one-hundred-thousand. ”41

Wang also wrote:

“The foreigners in Xiangshan, who are occupying Macao, illegally, are apparently several tens-of-thousands in number. ”42

“In excess of one-hundred thousand [...]" is perhaps a somewhat exaggerated figure; ”[...] several tens-of-thousands in number." is probably nearer the true figure. Ant~'onio Bocarro recorded the population of Macao in 1635:

“There are eight-hundred and fifty Portuguese households in Macao, and a similar number of Chinese households, all of them Catholics."43

According to Domingos Lam's account, by 1644 the population of Macao was "[...] more than forty-thousand [...]."44 A large portion of the population which settled in Macao was more than simply a convergence of merchants from all over the world. 45 In fact"[...] artisans with a hundred different skills came to the City."46 All these pieces of evidence show that during the middle part of the Wanli period of the Ming dynasty, at the end of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the seventeenth, Macao had already matured into an international trading city. As is recorded in the Qianlong period (r.1736-~+|1795) document Chongxiu Sanjie huiguan beiji~L. (Inscription Recording the Reconstruction of the Three Streets Guildhouse), Macao "[...] had become a real City [...]."47 In 1586 the King of Portugal gave the city the official title of 'Cidade do [Santo] Nome de Deus' ('City of the [Holy] Name of God'), thereby promoting Macao to a status of freedom, honour and renown equal to that enjoyed by ~'Evora, in metropolitain Portugal. 48

~$S 2. THE APPEARANCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN MACAO

The construction of a large number of public buildings in Macao and the speed of their development accelerated the evolution of the city as a whole. The most important form of public architecture in Macao was closely connected to the promotion of Catholicism.

The year in which Macao was first opened to the outside world was 1554, also the year in which Jesuit priests arrived in Macao. Subsequently, missionary priests of the Franciscan, Dominican and Augustine Orders also came, each establishing their own organisations and building churches. Churches were arguably the first public buildings of any kind in Macao. Fr. Greg~'orio Gonz~'alez~L. wrote in one of his letters in 1570 that:

“The year [1554] in which Leonel de Sousa formed an agreement with the Chinese, I landed on the island and built a church with a thatched roof. [...] The following year I built another church, and a few Portuguese built some houses."49

These must have been the first churches to be built in Macao, but as both were cabins with thatched roofs, neither has survived.

There is general consensus that the three oldest churches in Macao are S~~ao L~'azaro~L. (St. Lazarus'), S~~ao Louren~'co (St. Lawrence's) and Sto. Ant~'onio (St. Anthony's). All three are recorded on the Early Map of Macao drawn by Theodore de Bry at the end of the sixteenth century. 50

St. Lazarus' Church, also known as Igreja da Lepra {sic} (Leper's Church) is thought by Domingos Lam to have been built in " 1568".51 Benjamim Videira Pires~L. has the same opinion; 52 Manuel Teixeira puts the date at "1569"53 and Zhang Weiming~L. at "1562".54Guo Yongliang~L. deduces from an account of a visit by a Portuguese Bishop to Beijing~L. on 12th of October 1748 that the date of construction was "1557".55

St. Lawrence's Church is thought by Domingos Lam to have been constructed in "1558" and rebuilt in "1618".56 Guo Yongliang estimates the date of construction as "[...] between 1558 and 1560 [...];57Huang Qichen~L. puts the date of construction at "1575";58Li Pengzhu~L. at "1569";59 and Zhang Weiming's at "1562".60

According to Domingos Lam St. Anthony's Church dates from "before 1565"; Henrique {sic} puts the date at "1600"; Huang Qichen agrees with this estimate; 61 Zhang Weiming records the date as "1562"; Guo Yongliang agrees with the estimate in the "Anais de Macau" ("Macau Annuals") [?]/ Cartas ~^Anuas da China (Annual Letters from China) [?], according to which the church was built " [...] between 1558 and 1560 [...]."62

The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) also contains a reference to these three churches:

“Fengxin tang [lit.: St. Lawrence's Temple] is to the south-west, where the foreign ships leave early in the morning to sail back east. The foreigners go to pray in Fengxin. [...] To the north is another temple [i. e., St. Anthony's Church] where foreigners all go to worship, men and women together. [...] To the southeast is the Leper's Temple [i. e., St. Lazarus' Church] -- so named because of the leprosy hospital behind it --, with lepers living inside and guards posted outside."63

But the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) fails to provide dates of construction for the three churches. According to a Spanish copy of a book by Greg~'orio Gonz~'alez written in 1570, the Portuguese built up an extremely large residental area, including three churches, before they had been in Macao for twelve years. 64 The Portuguese took up official residence in Macao in 1557. Twelve years after this date gives 1569 as the date before which the construction of the three churches must have started. Fr. Jos~'e M~'ario~L. {sic} writes:

“Between 1558 and 1560 several Jesuit priests were living here. They discussed building three small churches: St. Lazarus', St. Lawrence's and St. Anthony's."65

Wu Guifang wrote in Jiajing reign, year forty four [JJ 44= 1565] that:

“[...] the foreigners in Macao illicitly built themselves thatched shophouses, and churches which they worshipped in."66

Ye Quan, who was in Macao the same year, also observed that "[the foreigners] went to worship every few days."67 This proves that there were already churches in Macao before 1565. The number of Portuguese residing in Macao had reached nine hundred by that time, in addition to the many servants who also had the Catholic faith. A single, crude church could not possibly have met the needs of a congregation of this size. The author concludes therefore that the three churches must all have been built"[...] between 1558 and 1560 [...]," and that the findings of the "Anais de Macau"~L. ("Macao Annuals") [?] /Cartas ~^Anuas da China (Annual Letters from China) [?] and the books by Jos~'e M~'ario and Domingos Lam are reasonably reliable.

One point which needs clarification is that all three churches were simple wooden structures; the towering European-style stone churches which added to the splendour of Macao were built in the seventeenth century. St. Lawrence's was built in 1618, St. Lazarus' in 1637 and S. Anthony's in 1638. 68

Another church which was built in the seventeenth century was St. Francis'. The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) refers to:

“[...] the Church of St. Francis in the eastern district."69

The "Anais de Macau" [?] ("Macao Annuals") notes that St. Francis' Church was built in "1579" by Franciscans and that it was maintained by the Franciscan Order. 70 Domingos Lam and Beatriz Basto da Silva put the date of construction at" 1580"; Zhang Weiming agrees with the "Anais de Macau" ("Macao Annuals") [?] /Cartas ~^Anuas da China (Annual Letters from China) [?] and Huang Qichen agrees with Domingos Lam.

The Igreja de Sto. Agostinho~L. (St Augustine's Church) is also recorded in the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao):

“Longsong Temple is in the northwest of Macao. ”71

Longsong Temple is the Igreja de Sto. Agostinho (St Augustine's Church). The “Anais de Macau" ("Macao Annuals") [?] /Cartas ~^Anuas da China (Annual Letters from China) [?] asserts that it was built between 1575 and 1578 by the two Augustinians Hai Lada~L. and Ma Lin.~L.72 Construction began in "1588" according to Domingos Lam and was completed in "1591".73 Huang Qichen puts the date at "1584", Beatriz Basto da Silva at "1586",74 a date confirmed by Zhang Weiming.

The Igreja de S~~ao Domingos (St. Dominic's Church), is also recorded in the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao):

“Banzhang Temple was, according to legend, reconstructed on the site of an earlier crude, low building made of zhang [camphorwood] by poor foreigners."75

Banzhang Temple is the Igreja de S~~ao Domingos (St. Dominic's Church), also known as the Meigui tang~L. (lit.: Mother Rose Temple), and was built by Spanish Dominicans. Domingos Lam records the date of construction as "1588",76 a date confirmed by Guo Yongliang. According to Beatriz Basto da Silva, it began to be built on the "23rd of October 1587";77 Huang Qichen and Zhang Weiming agree with this.

The Igreja de S~~ao Martinho~L. (St. Martin's Church), known as the Damiao~L. (Great Temple), was built in "1580" according to Fang Hao; 78 a date confirmed by Manuel Teixeira. This church was the ancestor of the Igreja de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul's Church). The Great Temple is noted in both the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) and the Xiangshan xianzhi~L. (Xiangshan County Records) as the earliest church in Macao. According to the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao):

“The Damiao [Great Temple] was the first church built by foreigners, in the south-eastern part of Macao."79

Zhu Huai~L. wrote in fascicule 4 of the Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records):

“The Damiao [Great Temple] is in the southeast of Macao. Known also as Wangren miao~L. [Wangren Temple], it was the first church built by the foreigners in Macao."80

The Great Temple was so called because it was the city's cathedral. Previously in Macao there had been no cathedral to function as the Bishopric. Until 1571 Bishop [Dom Belchior] Carneiro [Macao-1568-~+|581] used a wooden room inside St. Lazarus' Church as the bishop's office, so St. Lazarus' became the de facto cathedral. However, St. Lazarus' Church was situated not in the city centre but outside in Mong Ha district. 81 Domingos Lam writes that on the "23rd of January 1576" Pope Gregory XIII (elected 1572-~+|1585) created the Diocese of Macao and nominated St. Lazarus' Church the first S~'e (Cathedral). 82 Beatriz Basto da Silva also noted that on the "23rd of June 1576", the Pope also promoted the former Igreja de Sta. Maria (St. Mary's Church) to the status of S~'e (Cathedral), although it did not remain so. 83It is probable that in 1571 St. Lazarus' became the Bishopric when the office room was constructed, but that the Papal approval of the cathedral was not bestowed until 1576. The Macao jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) and Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records) both record that the Damiao (Great Temple) was in "[...] the southeastern part of Macao [...]," and yet St. Lazarus' Church is in the northern part of the city. It is quite certain from this that the Great Temple mentioned above cannot have been St. Lazarus' Church.

According to the Aomen zhengmian tu~L. (Map of Macao in Anterior View) in the Macao jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao), 84 the Great Temple is situated near the Southern Taxation Bureau. On the Aomen tu~L. (Map of Macao) compiled in Jiajing reign, year thirteen [JJ 13 = 1535] by the Viceroy of Liangguang (Guangxi and Guangdong) Wu Xiongguang,~L. 85the Great Temple was located on the southern harbour, and so it seems that this, the Great Temple mentioned in the Macao jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) and the Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records), corresponds to the S~'e (Cathedral) of today, with its great roof. According to Guo Yongliang, the construction of the cathedral which exists today "[...] began in 1622 [...],"86but Domingos Lam argues that a separate cathedral with a roof was constructed "[...] around 1581 [...] the initial stages of which were not built by foreigners."87 This confirms that the Macao jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) and the Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records) confused the promotion of St. Lazarus' Church to cathedral status in 1571 with the construction of a separate cathedral in 1581. 88

The most famous of the churches built in the seventeenth century is the Igreja de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul's Church), known universally in Chinese as 'Da Sanba'.~L. The history of St. Paul's Church can be traced back to the time when the port of Macao was first opened to the outside world. Manuel Teixeira wrote that:

“A letter describing the Portuguese Jesuits written in 1563 reads: "Besides the other churches, there are three hundred Portuguese who worship at the Jesuit church. This is most likely the former Church of St. Paul's, built like a storehouse with wooden walls and a tiled roof. This is the typical Portuguese style of building.'"89

Manuel Teixeira continues:

“Pope Gregory XIII said in 1576, at the time of the establishment of the Bishopric of Macao, that a Church of St. Mary existed here."90

Beatriz Basto da Silva wrote in her book Cronologia de Macau (Chronology of the History of Macao) that:

“On the 19th of August 1583 Bishop {Dom Belchior } Carneiro, { S. J.} passed away [... in Macao] and was buried at the Igreja de S~~ao Paulo [St. Paul's Church] in the centre of the major chapel. [...] On the 17th of September 1591, Ant~'onio {de Almeida, S. J.} died in Shaozhou~L. [originally translated in error as Chaozhou~L. {Shiuchow}]. His body was transported to Macao to be buried at St. Paul's."91

The Ming dynasty playwright Tang Xianzu~L. visited Macao in 1591 and saw St. Paul's Church. The church is referred to in the Mudanting~L. (Peony Pagoda) as "Xiangshan 'ao li Ba" ("Ba at Xiangshan Bay") and "Dubao miao"~L. ("Duobao Temple"). 92 Ba' is an abbreviation of 'Da Sanba', the Chinese name for 'St. Paul's Church', while 'Duobao' is a rendering in Chinese of 'St. Paul's'. This is sufficient evidence to conclude that St. Paul's Church had already been completed in the sixteenth century, only it was not the imposing edifice which can be seen today. The earlier St. Paul's was a somewhat smaller and simpler structure. After a fire reduced the church to ashes in 1595, it was rebuilt and then destroyed again by fire in 1601. However, Portuguese merchants and citizens decided to build it a third time. According to a report of the time, donations for the project totalled three thousand one hundred and thirty Portuguese taels~L. of gold. Work began officially in 1602. By 1603 a first church had been built at the back of the site. The fa~'cade which survives today was not completed until 1637. The whole project took more than thirty years. The fa~'cade alone cost thirty thousand taels of silver. 93 The grandness and sumptuousness of this building, as well as the meticulousness of its construction, made it the most acclaimed church in the Far East. Gong Xianglin~L. wrote in the early Qing dynasty that:

“The temple known as Sanba [St. Paul's] is more than ten zhang~L. ** high. The main door is open on one side with red stone carvings and glittering gold and emeralds."94

Peter Mundy, a visitor to Macao in 1637, wrote:

“The rooffe of the Church aperteyning to the Collidge (called St. Paules) is of the fairest Arche that yett I ever saw to my remembrance, of excellentt worckemanshippe, Don by the Chinois, Carved in wood, curiously guilt and painted with exquisite collours, as vermillion, azure etts., Devided into squares, and att the Joyning of each squares greatt roses of Many Folds or leaves one under another, lessning still all ending in a Knobbe; neare a yard Diameter the broadest, and a yard perpendiculer to the Knobbe standing from the roffe downward. Allsoe there is a New Faire Frontispice to the said Church with a spacious ascent to it by many steppes; the 2 last things mentioned of hewen stone."95

St. Paul's was not simply a church: it comprised a grand collection of public buildings. The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) records that it had "[...] scores of rooms for the use of the monks, [...]"96 which gives an impression of the scale. As soon as it was completed, St. Paul's became an important symbol of the city of Macao.

Apart from the rebuilt churches of S~~ao L~'azaro (St. Lazarus'), S~~ao Louren~'co (St. Lawrence's) and Sto. Ant~'onio (St. Anthony's), the seventeenth century also saw the construction in 1602 and reconstruction in 1634 of the Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Amparo (Church of Our Lady of Assistance) recorded in the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) as the "Tangren si"~L. ("Chinese Temple"). 97 In 1622, when the forts were constructed on Colina da Guia~L. (Guia Hill) and Colina da Penha~L. (Penha Hill), two churches were built at these places also, 98-- Zhang Weiming maintains that the 1622 construction date the Forte [de Nossa Senhora da] Penha [de Fran~'ca] (Penha Fort) is wrong; he suggests also that the Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia~L. (Fortress of Our Lady of Guia) [-- as it was popularly known --] was built in "1638".99 In 1633 the Igreja de Sta. Clara~L. (St. Clare's Church) was built, also known as the 'Templo da Monja'~L. ('Nun Temple').100 This, then, was the state of affairs regarding the building of churches before the fall of the Ming dynasty.

Besides churches, other European public buildings constructed in Macao at this time included factories, hospitals, charitable institutions, prisons and schools. Factories had first appeared in Macao back when the port was first established:

“For this place has one of the best gun-foundries in the world, whether of bronze, which it has had long since, or of iron, which was made by order of the Viceroy [of the Portuguese State of India], Count de Linhares."101

According to a Aomen jiewu shuotie~L. (Communications on Macao Border Matters):

“In 1557, the Chinese Government authorised the Portuguese to build a factory in the east of the peninsula. This marked the beginning of Portuguese factory construction in Macao."102

If a factory was built in Macao in 1557, then the Portuguese must have begun to build it as soon as they arrived in Macao. The earliest factory was that of the cannon manufacturer of Tavares Bocarro. It was situated on the slope of the Colina da Penha (Penha Hill).103 By the Wanli period (r.1573-~+|1620) of the Ming dynasty, the gun foundry had developed to a considerable size. Beatriz Basto da Silva mentions that in 1642 two hundred cannons cast in Macao were shipped to Portugal as a sign of loyalty to the new King [Dom Jo~~ao IV (~&o1604-r.1640-~+|1656)].104 This is sufficient to give an indication of the scale of the cannon manufacturing industry in Macao at that time.

Besides gun foundries, there were some other factories in Macao at that time, as "[...] artisans with a hundred different skills came to the city, [...and...] entered into employment with the foreign manufacturing enterprises, [...] making knives, guns and bullets."105 "Various kitchen and tailoring utensils and ingenious devices for making valuable merchandise [...]"106 were also manufactured in Macao. Besides knives, guns and bullets, the products manufactured in Macao at the time included glass mirrors, chiming clocks and rush mats. Another historical source indicates that early in Macao's history there was a workshop which produced embroidered portraits. 107

The first hospital and the first charitable institution in Macao were both created by Bishop [Dom Belchior] Carneiro. He wrote about the matter in a letter dated the 20th of November 1575:

“Shortly after my arrival in Macao, I founded a hospital open to all people, whether they were believers or no."108

[Dom Belchior] Carneiro arrived in Macao in May 1568, and consequently most writers record the opening of the hospital as 1569.109 The hospital was called the 'Yirenmiao'~L. ('Doctors' Temple') by the Chinese, while the Europeans called it the 'Hospital de S~~ao Rafael' (St. Raphael's Hospital)~L. or the 'Hospital da Casa Branca'~L. (lit.: 'White Horse Hospital'). According to Manuel Teixeira, the first charity in Macao -- the Miseric~'ordia~L. (Misericordy) --was established at the same time as the hospital.110 The Miseric~'ordia (Misericordy) is recorded in the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) as "[...] the Grain Providing Temple. "~L. Originally opened by Bp. [Dom Belchior] Carneiro, its original function was to take care of orphans and abandoned infants, using funds provided by the government and by wealthy merchants. By the seventeenth century, the number of hospitals in Macao had increased to two, according to Diogo Caldeira Rego's~L. work Rela~'c~~ao sobre a funda~'c~~ao e fortifica~'c~~ao de Macau~L. (A Short Report on the Conditions of the City of the [Holy] Name of God [in the] Kingdom of China, since its Beginnings to the Year 1623), published in 1623:

“All this apparatus of a convent, churches, the Misericordy, hospitals, pious institutions, and members of the clergy edified this city with public and private charities and with some general compulsory taxes which were levied with the consent of the people, [...]."111

Sources indicate that the Col~'egio de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul's College) must have opened by 1565 at the latest. In 1577 it already had one hundred and fifty students; by 1584 it had two hundred. In 1594 the College was promoted to the status of University, the first Western style institution of further education in the Far East. The University had a library, a printing press, a clinic, a pharmacy and an observatory, 112 which, combined with the great Church of St. Paul's, made up a collection of public buildings with a wide range of functions. Rego, who was general secretary of the Leal Senado [Senate], also wrote that:

“[...] and in this city they founded a College. Such a religious Order [i. e., the Society of Jesus], though without fixed income, is notwithstanding one of the most important religious Orders in the Orient, in edifications, number and quality of Fathers. Acting as a basic seminary to numerous missions at times it shelters sixty, seventy and even more subjects, [...]."113

A prison was constructed on the right hand side of the Igreja de Sto. Agostinho (St. Augustine's Church). The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) refers to it thus:

“The prison to the right of Longsong miao [St. Augustine's] is a three-storey building. The foreign prisoners convicted of less serious crimes live on the upper floor, while the perpetrators of more serious offences are kept on the middle floor or are chained with fetters and handcuffs on the ground floor."114

A comparison of the three-storey prison building with the fa~'cade of St. Paul's Church, which was no higher than three storeys, gives an impression of the prison's size.

As the Western churches appeared one by one, so the public buildings were completed, alongside residential buildings in a variety of Western architectural styles. A thoroughly Europeanised city had emerged on the southern coast of the great Ming Empire. J. van Neck, a Dutch visitor to Macao in 1601, wrote that:

“It is a very large city, full of buildings in the Spanish style. A towering Portuguese church stands at the top of the hill, with a large, blue cross on the roof."115

A priest named [Ant~'onio Francisco] Cardim who visited Macao in 1640 recorded that:

“Macao is a city of beautiful buildings, which is extremely prosperous from its commerce and from bustling activity which is to be found there day and night."116

On a visit to Macao, Theodore de Bry (~&o1528-~+|1598) drew a panoramic map of Macao which has survived from the sixteenth century. The map records the layout of Macao in the later part of the sixteenth century, depicting several hundred Western style buildings of various heights. The taller ones have three storeys, the shorter only two, and most have tiled roofs. The majority of the buildings have roofs with two sloping eaves, while the roofs of churches and belltowers come to a single point and are conical or five- or six-sided. The map shows a network of streets in a grid pattern with traffic consisting of sedan chairs, riders on horseback and European figures carrying umbrellas. 117 Judging from this map, the city of Macao had been built to a considerable size by this time.

In another panoramic map, reproduced in Ant~'onio Bocarro's Livro das plantas de t~^odas as fortalezas, cidades e povoa~'c~~oes do Estado da India Oriental [...] (Book of the plans of all the Fortresses, Cities and Towns of the State of East India [...]), thought by Jos~'e Maria Braga to have been drawn in "1632", the city is depicted clearly different from the view in the late sixteenth century map mentioned above. The later map shows groups of houses, large public buildings and various military installations which are mostly complete. All aspects of the city have expanded.118 It is clear that by this time the city had matured considerably. Macao was described as having "[...] tall buildings with tiles soaring above, in tightly packed rows facing one another [... or as...] certainly an enormous town."119 Qu Dajun described the buildings of Macao thus:

“The buildings mostly have three-storeys, towering like moutains. There are square, round, triangular, pentagonal, hexagonal and octagonal houses, [even in the shapes of flowers and fruits], in harmony with their surroundings, all unique, all competing in beauty and ingenuity."120

The accounts in these Chinese sources are entirely consistent in their portrayal of the appearance of Macao in the early period of its history, and reflect the magnificence and diversity of civic and residential architecture of Macao during the Ming dynasty.

Besides Macao's Western style buildings described by European observers during the Ming dynasty, the city also contained Chinese style buildings, the most important of which were the administrative offices and temples of the local officials. Although not great in number, they tended to be quite distinctive:

“The earlier Ming authorities consisted of three institutions: the Titiaoshu~L. [Office of Coordination], the Beiwoshu~L. [Office of Defence against the Japanese] and the Xunji shu~L. [Office of Fiscal and Penal Affairs], in addition to the Yishi ting~L. [Office of Administration], which is the only institution still in existence now."121

This material shows that the Ming dynasty authorities must have established at least four institutions of a political kind in the city of Macao, including the Titiaoshu (Office of Coordination), the Beiwoshu (Office of Defence against the Japanese) and the Xunji shu (Office of Fiscal and Penal Affairs). It is not clear where these three departments were originally situated during the Ming period. However, the Yishi ting (Office of Administration) remained until it was demolished and rebuilt in the middle part of the Qing dynasty. According to the Aomen Yishiting tu~L. (Plan of the Macao Office of Administration) in the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao), the office was a building with high roofs and upturned eaves in the classic Chinese architectural style.122 In a note to his Ao zhong zayong~L. (Miscellaneous Poems of a Settlement by the Sea) in the Sanba ji~L. (Collection of Poems of St. Paul's) Wu Li~L. [i. e., Wu Yushan]~L. mentions that:

“The mandarins met to discuss all maritime affairs in a hall named the Yishi ting [Office of Administration]."123

It is apparent that the Office of Administration was the place where the Ming dynasty officials met with the Portuguese to discuss trade and matters relating to their residency in Macao. Guo Yongliang suggests that the Office of Administration was built "[...] between Wanli reign, year thirteen and year fifteen [...]"124 [WL 13-15 = 1583-1585]. It is noted in fascicule 6 of the Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records), from the Qianlong period that:

“The Yishi ting [Office of Administration] was established when [Wang] Chuo~L. died. The foreigners held religious ceremonies there in spring and autumn."125

Wang Chuo governed Macao from 1577 onwards. He died before the end of the Wanli period [1620]. Consistent with Guo Yongliang's account, it seems, then, that the Office of Administration must have been established during the Wanli period.

In addition, there were two Chinese public buildings within the city of Macao at this time. One was the Mage miao~L. (Ama Temple) on the south-eastern tip of the peninsula, the other was the Yongfugu she~L. (Yongfugu Temple) near Shalitou~L. (Patane). Precise sources show that the Ama Temple was built in Wanli reign, year thirty-three [WL 33 = 1605], funded by donations from the merchants of Dezi jie (Dezi Street). 126 It is known from an Yongfugushe chongxiu beizhi~L. (Inscription Commemorating the Reconstruction of the Yongfugu Temple at Patane) that the Yongfugu Temple dates from the end of the Ming dynasty.127 These are the only two Chinese public buildings of Ming dynasty Macao which are referred to in reliable historical sources. Ming dynasty temples such as Lianfeng miao~L. (Lianfeng Temple) and Guanyin tang~L. (Guanyin Temple) are situated in Wangxia~L. (Mong Ha), which lay outside the city of Macao at that time, and so are not discussed here.

It is worth noting that the Portuguese also used Chinese style garden architecture in their development on Ilha Verde~L. (Green Island) in the late Ming period. Jiao Qinian~L. writes in Xunshi Aomen ji~L. (Report of an Inspection of Macao):

"Qingzhou [Green Island] is covered with trees and dense, thick grasses. There are temples. pagodas and gardens in Chinese style. The local people call it the foreigners' pleasure park."128

Wu Li wrote in Sanba ji (Collection of Poems of St. Paul's) that:

"Qingzhou [Green Island] is full of green trees, a place for enjoying the fresh air and for relaxation."129

Qu Dajun~L. wrote in Guangdong xinyu~L. (New Words of Guangdong):

"Qingzhou [Green Island] is covered with forest, with exquisite pavilions and pagodas among the dense palms and fruit trees."130

The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) contains a map of Qingzhou (Port.: Ilha Verde, or Green Island) depicting an entire formal classical Chinese garden.131 These materials indicate that the architecture in the city of Macao certainly was partly influenced by traditional Chinese methods of building. The appearance of wooden sculptures by Chinese craftsmen on the fa~'cade of St. Paul's Church is an example of the harmonious combination of Chinese and European styles resulting in improved artistic form.

~$S 3. THE RISE AND FALL OF THE CITY WALLS AND FORTIFICATIONS OF MACAO

No historical documents record an exact year in which the construction of the city walls of Macao began. Research by Zhang Weihua~L. suggests that the city of Macao "[...] seems to have begun in 1607, but the city's defences seem to have been completed in 1622."132 This theory is also incorrect. According to Zhu Huai in the the Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records):

“There is no reliable evidence of the date of construction of the city walls of Macao. The majority of written records indicate that it was during the Jiajing period."133

Zhu Huai's account gives a broad indication that the construction of the city walls of Macao was already underway during the Jiajing period [r.1522-~+|1567]: this is a largely reasonable deduction. When Ye Quan visited Macao at the end of the Jiajing period, he described it as "[...] an imposing and enormous town, [...]"134 suggesting that he must have seen the city walls. Beatriz Basto da Silva wrote that:

“In 1568, with the consent of the Chinese officials in Macao, fleet commander Trist~~ao Vaz da Veiga~L. ordered the first stretch of city walls to be constructed of Chunambo." 135

Gaspar Frutuoso's~L. Livro Segundo das Saudades da Terra (Second Book of Memories of Lands):

“[In 1568, because of an attack on Macao by Japanese pirates] {sic} It became apparent to everyone that they {the Portuguese} should build a fort in the settlement to defend themselves [...]. He [Trist~~ao Vaz] gathered together all the Portuguese in groups of five and six [...] From these {groups} he made twenty subdivisions, giving the overseeing of each to those who appear to be most diligent, thus making ten subdivisions in all, [...] and gave each one a section of the wall. Trist~~ao Vaz da Veiga ordered a earthen defence wall to be built surrounding Macao. [...] within sixteen days they had done over two-hundred and seventy-one arm's lengths {about 2,20 x 271,00 metres} [...]. [...] It would have pleased Our Lord that this would be the beginning of Portuguese kings coming to have many cities and fortresses in those parts {i. e., in China}."136

Given that 1568 was only a year after the last year of the Jiajing reign, the cusp of the Jiajing and Longqing periods is the most accurate estimate of the year in which the construction of the city fortifications began. Chen Wude's~L. Fuchu 136 (Memorial 136) to the Emperor in 1569, reads:

“The Portuguese and other foreigners from Malacca [presently, Melaka] are tough, intrepid types, with advanced and effective weapons which outstrip those of the Japanese. [...] Having settled in several of the bays around Haojing, they built houses and walls to defend them from attack."137

The phrase "[...] houses and walls [...]" clearly implies that the Portuguese in Macao had already begun to construct city walls before Longqing reign, year three [LQ 3 = 1569]. However, neither city walls nor guntower fortifications are shown on the Zaoqi Aomen quantu~L. (Complete Early Map of Macao). 138 In 1582, Francisco de Sande, the Governor of Luzon, wrote in a Report that:

“Macao does not yet have weapons or defence installations. [...] There are only five hundred dwellings, a Captain-Major and a Bishop there."139

In 1568, when the town was first being constructed, the Portuguese were concerned that the Chinese would disapprove, as in the following quotiation from Livro Segundo das Saudades da Terra (Second Book of Nostalgic Memories):

“The task was not finished until the wall was complete, out of fear that the mandarins would not approve it. Tristan Vaz felt the same way [too]; that they should refrain from [building] until there was another opportunity; [...]."140

It is likely, on the basis of this account, that the Ming government ordered the city walls which had built in Macao to be torn down during the transition period between the Jiajing and Longqing periods:

“The previous year, the zongbing~L. [Commander General] of the frontier forces Yu Dayou~L. mobilised foreign forces to suppress rebels, in return for a year's exemption from customs duties. When the year had elapsed, the foreigners continued to take advantage of the favour and did not resume duty payments. Not surprisingly, this gave the Chinese reason to mistrust them. The haidaofushi [Deputy Superintendent of Maritime Affairs] used this as a pretext on which to issue orders to his officials and soldiers to prevent their ships from passing and to block the roads, which forced the foreigners to comply."141

These events took place before 1569. Subsequently the Ming government issued further orders that Macao was to be supervised more strictly:

“The officials and soldiers are to guard over the bays and the coastal waters and exercise tight control over the trading of goods. If they come across illegal activity, they are empowered by law to investigate it and seize the culprits. The guanxian~L. [District Governor] will reward handsomely anyone who captures criminals trafficking in men or women slaves."142

Given these circumstances, it is perfectly possible that any walls or fortifications constructed by the Portuguese of Macao would have been destroyed by the Ming forces when they came to Macao. This accounts for the absence of any trace of the city walls in the late sixteenth century maps of Macao. The construction of fortifications in Macao a second time was necessary to defend against the Dutch. In September 1601, two Dutch trading vessels entered Macao. A proportion of the crew of these ships was detained, and seventeen sailors were sentenced to death for piracy. This incident aroused animosity between Portugal and Holland. In 1602, the Dutch fired at Macanese vessels in the Straits of Malacca, and in 1603 the Portuguese ship Santa Catarina was raided. In June 1604, the Dutch Admiral Wybrane van Warwyck ordered a fleet of ships to advance on Macao.143 This threat by the Dutch prompted the Portuguese in Macao to reconstruct their fortifications in order to defend Macao from attack. According to the Huang Mingfa zhuanlu~L. (Record of Imperial Edicts of the Ming Dynasty):

“In Wanli reign, year thirty three [WL 33 = 1605], [the foreigners in Macao] secretly built a city wall. When Chinese officials and soldiers interrogated them about it, they responded that it was for defence against pirate attacks."144

The fact that the wall was built "secretly" suggests that it was built without the permission of the Ming government. Further evidence is found in the Wanli yehuo bian~L. (Records of the Accession of the Wanli Emperor):

“In year Wanli reign, year thirty five (Dingmo~L.) ~L. [WL 35 = 1607], Lu Tinglong,~L. a Chinese Government officer from Panyu~L. in Guangdong, called for the expulsion of Macanese foreigners from Xiangshan. At that time, a city wall was constructed in Macao, and the city was inhabited by disorderly foreigners."145

According to the Mapa de Macau (Map of Macao) drawn by Lu~'is da Silva, the walls had already been completed on a large scale in 1607, corresponding to the Chinese language sources. 146

This reconstruction of the city wall in Macao may well have been torn down by the Ming government while Zhang Minggang~L. was in office as Viceroy of Liangguang (Guangxi and Guangdong). According to the Quanbian l~#ueji~L. (Record of Border Strategy):

“In the tenth month of Wanli reign, year forty three [WL 43 = 1616], the zongdu [Viceroy] of Guangdong, Zhiang Minggang, presented a Memorial to the Emperor stating that the coast of Guangdong would shortly be teeming with foreigners from Haojing Bay, who recruited Japanese pirates as accomplices. The haidao~L. [Prefectural Governor] of Guangdong, Yu Anxing,~L. and the xianling~L. [County Governor] Dan Qiyuan~L. visited Macao in person to issue a xuan~L. [Decree] which required one hundred and twenty-three Japanese to be sent back to their own country on pain of death. The foreigners' leader promised that they would not be allowed to return."147

Since the Chinese officials and soldiers were able to enter Macao and 'forcibly repatriate' the Japanese who had "[...] secretly constructed a city wall, [...thus...] removing in one day a nuisance which had plagued Macao for several decades, [...]"148 we may conclude that this "[...] secretly built [...]" city wall must have been destroyed by the Ming government. One clause of the Haidao jinyue~L. (Treaty Prohibiting Foreign Trade) which the haidaofushi (Deputy Superintendent of Maritime Affairs) Yu Anxing concluded with the foreigners in Macao in 1614, states clearly that:

“It is forbidden to undertake any activity without authorisation. [...] If in the future the foreigners dare to build so much as one brick or one plank of new houses or buildings, they will be destroyed and the perpetrators severely punished."149

It is quite possible that this prohibition was issued after the destruction of the city walls built by the Portuguese in Macao, in an attempt to prevent them by legislative means from building a city wall.

However, the Portuguese in Macao did not adhere strictly to the terms of this Treaty. In 1617 they began construction of the now famous Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo~L. or Fortaleza do Monte~L. (lit.: St. Paul's Fortress, [or Mount Fort]) and the city wall to the north of the city. 150 This time, covert construction was made possible by "[...] bribing Chinese officials not to interfere."151 The pace of construction increased until the Dutch intrusion into Macao in 1621. The Xiangshan ianzhi (Xiangshan County Records) of the Daoguang~L. period read:

“At that time Xu Ruke~L. sent the haidaofushi [Deputy Superintendent of Maritime Affairs] to Macao, where the Portuguese quickly informed him that the Dutch were going to attack Xiangshan, and requested troops, food and building materials to enable them to repair the city wall. [...] From then on, the Portuguese became more vigilant and increased the speed of construction to one hundred zhang a day."152

The pace of "[..] one hundred zhang a day [...]" reflects the extreme haste with which Macao made efforts to protect itself from an attack by the Dutch. Between 1621 and 1622, not only did work on the Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul's Fortress) continue, but construction of other fortifications began: the Mage paotai~L. [Guang.](lit.: Ama Temple Fortress) or Forte de S~~ao Tiago da Barra~L. [Port.] (lit.: Fort of St. James at the Bar or "Fortress of Santiago"~L. or "[...] a fort called S. Thiago [...]"). the Fortaleza de [Nossa Senhora do] Born Parto~L. (Fortress of Our Lady of Good Delivery), the Forte de S~~ao Francisco~L. (St. Francis' Fort) and the fortresses at Penha Hill and Guia Hill. 153 A fort was also built at Ilha Verde (Green Island) at the same time. The section of wall to the northeast of the city was completed in 1622.154 The Huang Mingfa zhuanlu -- Xuji~L. (Record of Imperial Edicts of the Ming Dynasty -- Continuation) contains further evidence:

“Following the warning of the invasion by the Dutch the previous year [i. e., the Dutch invasion of Macao in 1621], they [i. e., the Portuguese] planned foundations of the city walls and recruitment of additional labour force, claiming they were for defence against the Dutch. In fact, all along the coast were not mounds of earth but large and imposing houses."155

This bout of construction did meet with interference from the Ming Government. The Xiangshan xianzhi (Xiangshan County Records) from the Daoguang period note that:

“Xu Ruke sent the Chinese forces to Macao, whence they reported that the city walls had not been destroyed. The Portuguese in Macao had only a small fighting force. With the help of reinforcements all the fortifications were quickly completely destroyed."156

Xu Ruke was appointed to act as haidaofushi (Deputy Superintendent for Maritime Affairs) in Macao in 1618 and did not leave Macao until 1621. He must have carried out this action some time before he left Macao. The "[...] complete destruction [...]" in the quotation above may possibly refer only to Green Island, and the city walls of Macao may not have been destroyed entirely. The Folangji zhuan (Notes on the Portuguese) in the Mingshi (Ming History) record that:

“In Tianqi reign, year one [TQ 1 = 1621], the chief of the garrison thought the scourge had ended and sent a qianjiansi [Inspector] Feng Conglong~L. to destroy the settlement they had built on Qingzhou [Green Island], which the foreigners did not dare to resist."157

Western language sources also record that the Chinese officials and troops completely destroyed all that had been built on Green Island. The fortresses and guntowers which survived the conflict between the Portuguese and the Dutch in 1621 were to be of considerable significance subsequently. In May 1623, after the Luso-Dutch conflict was resolved, Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas took over leadership of the Macanese forces. He speedily completed the construction of the city walls of Macao and the system of military defences. Beatriz Basto da Silva wrote:

"The post of Governor was created and attributed on the 17th of July 1623 to Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas, as well as Captain-Major [In the same year,] the Governor enclosed the city within a wall and generally improved the defence system."158

Ant~'onio Bocarro's account reads:

"The walls of this were almost finished by Dom Francisco Mascarenhas, its first Captain-General {sic}, who constructed most of these fortifications; [...]."159

Da Er Bo~L. *** wrote:

"The Portuguese put the Dutch prisoners who had been captured in 1622 to work building the city wall, to protect from external attack. The wall ran from the Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo [St. Paul' s Fortress] in the northeast to the ruins of the Convento de S~~ao Francisco [St. Francis' Convent]. The entire project was completed in 1626."160

The second part of Ming Qing shiliao~L. (Historical Materials of the Ming and Qing Dynasties) reads:

"Dozens of gun towers were erected, which looked like fortresses. This was not true, since they lacked earth foundations. According to numerous reports from spies, the foreigners in Macao had spent two hundred thousand taels on constructing the walls and had informed the King of Portugal that he was in possession of a piece of land within Chinese Imperial territory. The King sent his own nephew Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas to be Governor of the city. The foreigners said that Mascarenhas was a renowned military leader. Subsequently, his fame spread because he built a city wall and he declared his intention to build the foundations for a palace and, after that, a tower. He intended to request that the King send a prince to oversee their defence, thinking meanwhile that he would live there himself. Fortunately, the Ming Government uncovered his plan and took strategic measures, including the cutting off of the grain supply to the city, to strangle the Portuguese. Meanwhile, the number of Chinese officials and soldiers stationed in the territory was increased. They surrounded the fortifications, arrested the conspirators and reverted to the earlier strategy of sowing discord between the Portuguese women and the Governor, in order to stir up internal conflict. If a guard left the fort, he would be captured. These measures put pressure on the Portuguese, and they finally promised to destroy the city walls and their arms, to expel traitors, to stop posting sentries and to pay more than ten thousand taels of tax annually, admitting their guilt in writing. The Governor had to order his troops during the four days between the 23rd of the second month and the beginning of the third month."161

Because of omissions, this document has no precise date. It mentions that the King's nephew, nobleman Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas, led the military force of Macao. 162 The passage also mentions that the Chinese-"[...] reverted to the earlier strategy of sowing discord between the Portuguese women and the Governor, in order to stir up internal conflict, [...]" a state of affairs echoed in the account found in Historic Macao:

"Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas' ambitions increased. He raided local houses, subjected the gentlemen's women to indignities, frightening them to such an extent that women no longer dared to go to church to pray. On the 10th of October 1624, the deputies of the Leal Senado [Senate] and the Jesuit priests could tolerate him no longer and launched a coup d'~'etat." 163

The "[...] promise to destroy the city walls [...]" refers to an event which took place in the fourth month of Tianqi reign, year five [TQ 5=1626], when the city walls were torn down. Fascicule 58 of the Ming Shenzong shilu~L. (Record of Events of the Shenzong Period of the Ming Dynasty) reads:

"[In the fourth month of Tianqi reign, year five, the Viceroy of Liangguang [Guangxi and Guangdong] He Shijian~L. reported to the Emperor that foreigners were illegally occupying Macao, and were, for the time, proliferating quite unchecked. The civil and military officials decided to defend against them. The traitors were eliminated and the foreigners obeyed out of fear and said they were willing to destroy their walls themselves, leaving only the stretch along the seafront as defence against the Dutch."164

This concords with Ant~'onio Bocarro' s account:

"[...], however, the Chinese, who are so suspicious, made us pull down a great part of those which are on the landward side, and run from the said fort of Sam Paullo, thinking that they were built against them. Thus there remain only those which run opposite the sea, on the west side, besides a trench on the beach of Cacilhas, [...]. 165

These excerpts show that after Mascarenhas' appointment as first Governor of Macao, the city walls and military defence structures were basically complete. According to the Ming dynasty sources cited above,"[... Mascarenhas] built a city wall and he declared his intention to build the foundations for a palace and, after that, a tower, [... and...] dozens of gun towers were erected, which looked like fortresses." Inspection of some contemporary maps of Macao reveals that the St. Paul's Fortress is not in fact included on them. Evidently, the St. Paul' Fortress was not only a key element of Macao's military construction of the time, but was also the residence of the Governor. The fact that "[...] the foreigners in Macao had spent two hundred thousand taels on constructing the walls [...]" reflects the large scale of this construction project. Ant~'onio Bocarro explains:

"The height of these walls is two fathoms, up to the parapets, where they are eight spans thick; withal the ground on which they are built is very uneven, so thast the height of the wall likewise varies according as to wether it runs up or down hill. It is made of the same material which we have already described, of earth mixed with lime and straw, the whole well ounded together, thus making the walls very strong, city walls were four yards in height, and five feet wide at the base."166

The description in Sanbai nian qian zhi Aomen~L. (Macao Three Hundred Years Ago):

"The base of the wall is twenty zhichi~L. **** thick, tapering towards the top to a thickness of fifteen zhichi. The height of the wall is fifty zhichi. The wall is built entirely of mud and lime mixed with straw, making it solid."167

In 1626, under the forceful intervention of the Viceroy of Guangxi and Guangdong, He Shijin, the northern section of the wall -- presumably including the Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul's Fortress) -- was completely destroyed, but the south-eastern section on the sea front was preserved. According to the Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao):

"The wall was low and solid. The part that the Ming authorities have destroyed is now within the residential area, and is not contiguous with the surrounding wall to the northwest."168

After the northern section of the wall was destroyed, the Portuguese in Macao did not give up hope completely. Less than five years passed before they expressed an interest in rebuilding the fortifications. Fascicule 41 of the Chongzhen zhangbian~L. (Reports of the Chongzhen Period) reads:

"On Bingchen~L. day [in the twelfth month of Chongzhen reign, year three [CZ 3 = 1630], the kegeishi~L. [Head] of the Li Bu~L. [Office of Rituals], Lu Zhaolong~L. reported that when the fortifications erected illegally by the foreigners were town down by our soldiers, only half was destroyed. Now they insist that it is necessary to reconstruct their fortifications with three hundred additional men. [...] The Emperor is asked to send an Edict to Macao, confirming that the fortifications may never be rebuilt."169

Although the Ming Government clearly ordered that "[...] the fortifications may never be rebuilt, [...]" the authorities of the Portuguese in Macao ignored the order. A map of Macao drawn in 1632 shows that the city wall and guntower to the north were both completely reconstructed. It can be seen perfectly clearly on this map that the wall on the western side stretched from the sea to Patane, where there was a guntower. To the south the wall was reconstructed as far as St Paul's, and a sizeable guntower was built on the hill to the east of St Paul's. The map shows a total of eleven cannon firing points. To the south on Guia Hill was the Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario~L. (St. January's Fortress). The Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia (Fortress of Our Lady of Guia) was built to the north of the St. January's Fortress on the Guia Hill itself. The city wall extended from the St. January's Fortress, south along the coast past the Forte de S~~ao Francisco (St. Francis' Fort), the Forte de Nossa Senhora da Penha de Fran~'ca~L. (Fort of Our Lady of Penha de Fran~'ca) and Fortaleza de [Nossa Senhora do] Bom Parto (Fortress of Our Lady of Good Delivery), ending at the Forte de S~~ao Tiago da Barra (Fort of St. James at the Bar). The city wall was rebuilt to the north of the Colina da Guia (Guia Hill).170 In total, with the exception of the Porto Interior (Inner Harbour) to the west, the city wall was rebuilt to the north, south and east of Macao, and fortresses were built at strategic locations, making Macao a city which with extremely tight military defences.

During the Ming dynasty, four city gates existed in Macao. The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao) reads:

"The Damen yi~L. [Port.: Porta Grande; or Great Gate], also called the Sanba men~L. [Port.: Porta de S~~ao Paulo; or St. Paul's Gate], the Xiao men San~L. [Port.: Porta Pequena; or Small Gate] also known as the Xiao Sanba men~L. [Port.: Porta Pequena de S~~ao Paulo; or Small St. Paul's Gate], the Shalitou men~L. [Port.: Porta de Patane; or Patane Gate] and the Huawangmiao men~L. [Port.: Porta do Templo de Huawang; or Huawang Temple Gate]. 171

Obviously, all four of these gates were in the northern part of the city wall, and their main purpose was to facilitate traffic to and from the Chinese territory to the north. Later, the three smaller gates had to be closed, leaving only the St. Paul's Gate open. The reason for the closure was the ban on maritime trade and the strict control which the Ming Imperial Court exercised over Macao. This situation continued until the Daoguang period [r.1821-~+|1851], when the Porta do Campo~L. (Field Gate) and the Porta de Seng Hoi~L. (Xinkai Gate) were opened to enable contact between Macao and the mainland. 172

The fortresses are mentioned in a number of sources. The Aomen jil~#ue (Monograph of Macao), Xue Wen's~L. Aomen ji~L. (Notes on Macao), Lu Xiyan's~L. Aomen ji (Notes on Macao), and Bao Yu's~L. Xiangshan xiangzhi (Xiangshan County Records) all contain references to the six fortresses of Macao.

The Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo (St. Paul' s Fortress), also known as the Fortaleza Grande~L. (Great Fortress) or the Fortaleza do Monte (Mount Fort), began construction in 1617 and was completed in 1626.173 This fortress is the largest in Macao. The fortress stands at the top of a small hill, laid out in a square. At the centre of the square stood a three storey building, with a cannonport on each storey, a total of eighteen bronze cannons in all. The fortress served as the "[...] dwelling of the Captain-Generals [i. e., Captain-Majors] [...]"174 and official residence of the Governor of Macao until the eighteenth century.

The Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia (Fortress of Our Lady of Guia [popularly known as Guia Fort]) stood on the top of Guia Hill, the highest point in Macao. It began to be built in 1622.175 Ant~'onio Bocarro's account states that:

"[...] it has been decided that it is better to raze it, which is already arranged for with the Chinese, who have contracted to do it for the price of 22,000 taels." 176

It is safe to say that this fortress was certainly destroyed before 1635. The monument of the fortress which still exists states that:

"This fortress was built using donations from the citizens of Macao. The commander of the fortress was Ant~'onio Ribeiro. Construction began in September 1637 and finished in March 1638."177

Obviously, the fortress can only have been rebuilt if it was previously destroyed. The area of the fortress is eight hundred square metres. Its wall are six metres high, with four towers and five cannons.

The Forte da Penha (Penha Fort), known to Europeans also as the Forte de Nossa Senhora da Penha de Fran~'ca (Fort of Our Lady of Penha de Fran~'ca), was also built between 1622 and 1623. Two bronze cannons were installed at the Penha Fort in 1622 as part of the fortification construction programme of Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas. 178

The Forte da Barra (lit.: Bar Fortress) is known as the Mage paotai [Guang.] (lit.: Ama Temple Fortress) or the Forte de S~~ao Tiago da Barra [Port.] (lit.: Fort of St. James at the Bar). When the Dutch attacked Macao in 1622, an enormous cannon was added to this fortress. When it was expanded by Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas in 1623, it was transformed into an imposing edifice:

"[...] 150 paces by 55; [...]. In the middle of this fort, there is a cistern excavated from the solid rock, which is capable of holding 3,000 tons of water, [...]."179

The Shaohui paotai~L. (lit.: Incinerator Fortress), also known as the Fortaleza de [Nossa Senhora do] Born Parto (Fortress of Our Lady of Good Delivery) or the Fortaleza de Sta. Maria (St. Mary's Fortress), already existed at the time of the Dutch attack on Macao in 1622. The fortress was triangular in shape and was equipped with six cannons. 180

The Forte de S~~ao Francisco (St. Francis' Fort) was conical in shape and was also already in existence at the time of the conflict with the Dutch. It was rebuilt in 1629,181 equipped with seven cannons.182

Besides the six fortresses which are referred to in various sources, there are two which are not mentioned for some reason. A 1632 map of Macao clearly shows eight fortresses, 183 and both Ant~'onio Bocarro's Livro das Plantas de todas as Fortalezas, cidades e povoa~'c~~oes do Estado da ~'India Oriental (Book of the plans of all the Fortresses, Cities and Towns of the State of East India) edition of 1653 and Domingo Fern~'andez Navarrete's Tratados Historicos, Politicos, Ethicos, y Religiosos de la Monarchia de China [...] (The Travels and Controversies of Friar Domingo Navarrete 1618-1686 [...]) record the existence of eight fortresses in Macao ["[...] one great Fort, and seven little ones."]184-- two more than the other accounts. One was a small fort at Patane, called he Forte de Patane~L. (Patane's Fort), also called the Forte de S~~ao Jo~~ao (St. John's Fort). According to Guo Yongliang, this fortress "[...] was one of the oldest fortresses in Macao, but the date of its construction remains obscure."185 The Cronologia de Macau (Chronology of the History of Macao) reads:

" 1562 -- The first church - "Ermida de Santo Ant~'onio [St. Anthony's Hermitage] {or S~~ao Jo~~ao [St. John's)] -- according to the author} 《tranqueira com portas da povoa~'c~~ao e pe~'cas de artilharia》 [《at the entrance to a residential area, with cannons》] the "baluarte da Palanchica" ["the Palanchica Bulwark"] {(the Patane Fortress) -- according to the author}."186

The Fortaleza de Patane~L. (Patane's Fortress) [sic] was seemingly one of the earliest in Macao. However, the map indicates that this fortress must date back to before 1632, and had a total of three cannons, making it one of the smaller fortresses in Macao. 187 The other fortification was the Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario (St. January's Fortress), also known as the Shanding paotai~L. (Peak Fortress), situated near the Centro Hospitalar Conde de S~~ao Janu~'ario~L. (Count St. January's Government Hospital). This fortress was built at the same time as the Macao city wall, in approximately 1626. 188 The map depicts this as one of the smaller forts in Macao with only two cannons. 189

The city walls and fortresses of Macao passed through several cycles of destruction and reconstruction, but were finally completed in Chongzhen reign, year six [CZ 6 = 1632]. Perhaps on account of the ever increasing threat the Ming dynasty faced on its northern frontiers, the Ming Government expended no further attention to the city walls and fortresses which were being built in Macao. It is also possible that the Ming Government was preparing to sign an agreement with Macao. Mindful of the threat posed by the Dutch attack on Macao, they were inclined to agree to the Portuguese rebuilding the city walls and fortresses in Macao. To conclude, from 1632, when Macao's fortifications and fortresses were built to completion, until the decline of the Ming dynasty, neither they nor the Portuguese again raised the dispute over the fortifications in Macao.

Translated from the English by: Justin Watkins

CHINESE GLOSSARY

Anais de Macau 亞拿以斯~L.澳門璀 Anayisi

Anayisi 亞拿以斯~L.澳門璀 Anais de Macau

Ao Leidi 愛雷迪 Er~'edia, Manuel Godinho de

Ao zhong zayong 嶴中雜詠

Aomen 澳門

Aomen biannian shi 澳門編年史 Chronologia da Hist~'oria de Macau

Aomen de jianli yu qiangdajishi 澳門的建立與強大記事

Aomen ji 嶴門記

Aomen jiewu shuotie 澳門界務說帖

Aomen tu 澳門圖

Aomen Wenhua Sishu 澳門文化司署

Aomen Yishiting tu 議事亭圖

badu jinyuan 巴度金元

Bai Lejia 白樂嘉 Braga, Jos~'e Maria

Baimaxing yiyuan 白馬行醫院 Hospital da Casa Branca

Banzhang miao 板樟廟 S~~ao Domingos

Bao Leshi 包樂史 Bluss~'e, L~'eonard

Bao Yu 暴煜

Beijing 北京

Beiwoshu 備倭署

Bianwen jin yifeiqiu shu 辨問矜疑罪囚疏

Binchen 丙辰

Bluss~'e, L~'eonard 包樂史 Bao Leshi

Bo Kaluo 博卡羅 Bocarro, Ant~'onio

Bo Kese 博卡塞 Boxer, Charles Ralph

Bocarro, Ant~'onio 博卡羅 Bo Kaluo

Boduolu paotai 伯多祿炮台 Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario

Boduolu tang 伯多祿堂Igreja de S~~ao Paulo

Boxer, Charles Ralph 博卡塞 Bo Kese

Braga, Jos~'e Maria 白樂嘉 Bai Lejia

Centro Hospitalar Conde de S~~ao Janu~'ario 山頂醫院 Shanding yiyuan

Changle 長樂

Chaozhou 潮洲

Chen Rui 陳瑞

Chen Wude陳吾德

Chongxiu Sanjie huiguan beiji重修三街會館碑記

Chongzhen 崇禎

Chongzhen zhangbian 崇禎長編

Chronologia da Hist~'oria de Macau 澳門編年史 Aomen biannian shi

Colina da Guia 東望洋山 Dong wangyang shan

Colina da Penha 西望洋山 Xi wangyang shan

Da Er Bo 達爾波

Da Sanba 大三巴 Igreja de S~~ao Paulo

Damen yi 大門一

Damiao 大廟

Damiao 大廟 S~~ao Martinho

Dan Qiyuan 但啟元

Daoguang 道光

Datang 大堂 S~'e

Dechuan Jiakang 德川家康 Tokugawa Ieyasu

Dezi jie 德字街

dingmo 丁末

Dong wangyang shan 東望洋山 Colina da Guia

Dong wangyangpaotai 東望洋炮台 Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia

Dubao miao 多寶寺

Er~'edia, Manuel Godinho de 愛雷迪 Ao Leidi

Fang Hao 方豪

Fang Kongzhao 方孔照

Feng Conglong 馮從龍

Fengchen Xiuji 豐臣秀吉 Toyotomi Hideyoshi

Fengshun tang 風順堂 S~~ao Louren~'co

Fengshuntang jie 風順堂街

Fengxin tang 風信堂 S~~ao Louren~'co

Folangji zhuan 佛郎機傳

Fortaleza [de Nossa Senhora] do Born Parto de Santa Maria 燒灰爐炮台 Shaohui paotai

Fortaleza [de Nossa Senhora] do Bom Parto de Santa Maria 南環炮台 Nanhuan paotai

Fortaleza [de Nossa Senhora] do Bom Parto de Santa Maria 蓬巴面底台 Pengbaerdi tai

Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia 基亞炮台 Jiya paotai

Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia 東望洋炮台 Dong wangyangpaotai

Fortaleza de Patane 沙梨頭炮台 Shalitou paotai

Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario 仁伯爵炮台 Renbojue paotai

Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario 山頂炮台 Shanding paotai

Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario 伯多祿炮台 Boduolu paotai

Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario 耶路炮台 Yeluni paotai

Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo 聖保祿炮台 Sheng Baolu paotai

Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo 三巴炮台 Sanba paotai

Fortaleza do Monte 漫地炮台 Mandi paotai

Forte da Barra 媽閣炮台 Mage paotai

Forte da Barra 嘉辣炮台 Baila paotai

Forte de Nossa Senhora da Penha de Fran~'ca 西望洋炮台 Xi wangyang paotai

Forte de Santiago 媽閣炮台 Mage paotai

Forte de Santiago 嘉辣炮台 Baila paotai

Forte do S~~ao Francisco 法蘭濟斯炮台 Lanjisi paotai

Forte do S~~ao Francisco 聖方濟各炮台 Sheng Fangfige paotai

Forte do S~~ao Francisco 噶斯蘭炮台 Gasilan paotai

Forte do S~~ao Francisco 嘉思欄炮台 Jiasilan paotai

Frente da Alf~^andega 關前街 Guanqian jie

Frutuoso, Gaspar 福魯圖奧佐 Fulutoaozuo

Fujian 福建

Fulutoaozuo 福魯圖奧佐 Frutuoso, Gaspar

Gang Yim leisi 岡蔭雷斯Greg~'orio Gonz~'alez

Gao Rushi 高汝式

Gaolou jie 高樓街

Gasilan paotai 噶斯蘭炮台 Forte do S~~ao Francisco

Gong Xianglin 禳m翔麟

Grain Providing Temple 支糧廟 Zhiliang miao

Greg~'orio Gonz~'alez 岡蔭雷斯 Gang Yim leisi

Guangdong 廣東

Guangdong haitang huilan 廣東海防匯覽

Guangdong tongzhi 廣東通志

Guangdong xinyu 廣東新語

Guangzhou 廣州

Guanqian jie 關前街 Frente da Alf~^andega

guanxian 官縣

Guanyin tang觀音堂

Guo Fei 郭 [fei]

Guo gei jianshu gao 郭給諫疏稿

Guo Shangbin 郭尚賓

Guo Yongliang 郭永亮

Hai Lada 海拉達

haidao 海道

haidaofushi 海道副使

Haifang 海防

Haiya 海牙

Haojing 濠鏡

He Shijin 何士晉

Helan huajia bixia de Aomen - 16 zhi 17 shoi liangfu tongbanhua kaozheng 荷蘭畫家筆下的澳門：16至17世紀兩幅銅版畫考証

Hongchuang men 紅窗門

Hongren dian 弘仁殿

Hospital da Casa Branca 白馬行醫院 Baimaxing yiyuan

Hospital de S~~ao Rafael 聖辣法耶醫院 Sheng Lafaye yiyuan

Huaizi jie 懁字街

Huang Mingfa zhuanlu 皇明法傳祿

Huang Mingfa zhuanlu -- Xuji皇明法傳祿（續記）

Huang Qichen 黃啟臣

Huawang tang 花王堂 Sto. Ant~'onio

Huawangmiao men 花王廟門

Igreja de S~~ao Paulo 大三巴 Da Sanba

Igreja de S~~ao Paulo 伯多祿堂 Boduolu tang

Ilha Verde 青周 Qingzhou

Incinerator Fortress 燒灰爐炮台 Shaohui paotai

Incinerator Fortress 南環炮台 Nanhuan paotai

Incinerator Fortress 蓬巴面底台 Pengbaerdi tai

Jiajing嘉靖

Jiala paotai嘉辣炮台 Forte de S~~ao Tiago da Barra

Jiao Qinian 焦祈年

Jiasilan paotai 嘉思欄炮台 Forte do S~~ao Francisco

Jiepisi Mali 傑琵斯馬里 M~'ario, Jos~'e

Jinan Daxue 暨南大學

Jiya paotai 基亞炮台 Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora da Guia

Jiyi 己已

Kangxi 康熙

kegeishi 科給事

Lam, Domingos 林家駿 Lin Jiajun

Lanjisi paotai 法蘭濟斯炮台 Forte do S~~ao Francisco

Leal Senado 市政廳 Shi zhengting

Lei Zengde 雷曾德 Resende, Barreto de

Leige 雷戈 Rego, Diogo Caldeira

Li Bu 禮部

Li Pengzhu 李鵬翥

Li Ruixiang 李瑞祥

Lianfeng miao 蓮峰廟

Liangguang 兩廣

Lin Jiajun 林家駿 Lam, Domingos

Liu Xianbing 劉羨冰

Ljungstedt, Anders 龍思泰 Long Sitai

Ljungstedt, Andrew 龍思泰 Long Sitai

Long Sitai 龍思泰 Ljungstedt, Anders

Longqing 隆慶

Longsong miao 龍嵩廟 Santo Agostinho

Longsong zhengjie 龍嵩正街

Lu Kun 盧坤

Lu Tinglong 盧廷龍

Lu Xiyan 陸希言

Lu Zhaolong 盧兆龍

L~#uao 旅

M~'ario, Jos~'e 傑琵斯馬里 Jiepisi Mali

Ma Lin 馬林

Macao 澳門 Aomen

Mage miao 媽閣廟

Mage paotai 媽閣炮台 Forte de S~~ao Tiago da Barra

Mandi paotai漫地炮台 Fortaleza do Monte

Ming Dynasty 明代 Mingdai

Ming Qing shiliao 明清史料

Ming Shenzong shilu 明神宗實祿

Mingdai Aomen chengshi jianzhi kao明代澳門城市建置考

Mingshi 明史

Miseric~'ordia 仁慈堂 rencitang

Mong Ha 望廈 Wangxia

Mother Rose Temple 母玫瑰堂 Mumeigui tang

Mudan ting 牡丹亭

Mumeigui tang 母玫瑰堂 Mother Rose Temple

Nanhuan paotai南環炮台 Fortaleza [de Nossa Senhora] do Bom Parto de Santa Maria

Nanwan 南灣

Nisi 尼寺 Templo das Monjas

Pan Riming Pan Riming 潘日明 Pires, Benjamim Videira

Pang Shangpeng 龐尚鵬

Panyu 番禺

Patane 沙梨頭 Shalitou

Pengbaerdi tai "蓬巴面底台" Fortaleza [de Nossa Senhora] do Bom Parto de Santa Maria

Pires, Benjamim Videira 潘日明

Porta de Patane 沙梨頭門 Shalitou men

Porta de Seng Hoi 新開門 Xinkai men

Porta de St. Paulo 三巴門 Sanba men

Porta do Campo 水坑尾門 Shuikengwei men

Porta do Templo de Fawang 花王廟門 Huawangmiao men

Porta Pequena 小門三 Xiao men San

Porta Pequena de S~~ao Paulo 小三巴門 Xiao Sanba men

Portuguese taels 巴度金元 badu jinyuan

qianjiansi 遣監司

Qianlong 乾隆

Qing dynasty 清代 Qingdai

Qingdai 清代

Qingzhou 青周 Ilha Verde

qu 區

Qu Dajun 屈大均

Quanbian l~#ueji 全邊略記

Rego, Diogo Caldeira 雷戈 Leige

Renbojue paotai 仁伯爵炮台 Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario

rencitang仁慈堂 Miseric~'ordia

Resende, Barreto de 雷曾德 Lei Zengde

Rua da Alf~^andega 關卡 Guanka

Rua de S~~ao Paulo 三巴廬寺街 Sanbalusi jie

S~~ao Domingos 板樟廟 Banzhang miao

S~~ao L~'azaro 望德堂 Wangde tang

S~~ao Louren~'co 風信堂 Fengxin tang

S~~ao Louren~'co 風順堂 Fengshun tang

S~~ao Martinho 大廟 Damiao

Sanba ji: 三巴集

Sanba men 三巴門 Porta de S~~ao Paulo

Sanba paotai 三巴炮台 Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo

Sanbai nian qian zhi Aomen 三百年前之澳門

Sanbalusi jie 三巴廬寺街 Rua de S~~ao Paulo

Shalitou 沙梨頭

Shalitou men 沙梨頭門 Porta de Patane

Shalitou paotai 沙梨頭炮台 Fortaleza de Patane

Shanding paotai 山頂炮臺

Shanding paotai 山頂炮台 Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario

Shanding yiyuan 山頂醫院Centro Hospitalar Conde de S~~ao Janu~'ario

Shanghai上海

Shaohui paotai 燒灰爐炮台 Fortaleza [de Nossa Senhora] do Bom Parto de Santa Maria

Shaozhou 韶州

Shen Deqian 沈德潛

Sheng Baolu paotai聖保祿炮台 Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo

Sheng Fangfige paotai 聖方濟各炮台 Forte do S~~ao Francisco

Sheng jiala jiaotang聖家辣教堂 Santa Clara

Sheng Lafaye yiyuan 聖辣法耶醫院 Hospital de S~~ao Rafael

Shenshan diyi ting 神山第一亭

Shi Baidi 施白蒂 Silva, Beatriz Basto da

Shi zhengting 市政廳, Leal Senado

Shizhamen 石閘門

shizi 十字 [cross]

shizi 石仔 [paved]

Shizi dajie 十字大街

Shuikengwei men 水坑尾門 Porta do Campo

Silva, Beatriz Basto da 施白蒂 Shi Baidi

Sousa, Leonel de 索薩 Suosa

Sta. Clara 聖家辣教堂 Sheng jiala jiaotang

Sto. Agostinho 龍嵩廟 Longsong miao

Sto. Ant--nio 花王堂Huawang tang

Suosa 索薩 Sousa, Leonel de

S~'e 大堂 Datang

Taibei 台北

Tan Shibao譚世寶

Tang Kayian 湯開建

Tang Xianzu 湯顯祖

Tangren si 唐人寺

Teixeira, Manuel 文德泉 Wen Dequan

Telisiteng Wasi da Weiyijia 特里斯佟瓦斯達維依加 Trist~~ao Vaz da Veiga

Templo das Monjas 尼寺 Nisi

Tian Shenglin 田生金

Titiaoshu 提調署

Tokugawa Ieyasu 德川家康 Dechuan Jiakang

Toyotomi Hideyoshi 豐臣秀吉 Fengchen Xiuji

Veiga, Trist~~ao Vaz da 特里斯佟瓦斯達維依加 Telisiteng Wasi da Weiyijia

Wang Bo 汪柏

Wang Chuo王綽

Wang Linheng 王臨亨

Wang Shixing 王士性

Wang Shizhen 王士幀

Wang Yining 王以寧

Wangde tang 望德堂 S~~ao L~'azaro

Wangren miao 望人寺

Wangxia望廈

Wanli 萬曆

Wanli changcheng 萬里長城

Wanli yehuo bian 萬歷野獲編

Weizi jie 畏字街

Weizijie 威字街

Wen Dequan 文德泉 Teixeira, Manuel

Wu Guifang 吳桂芳

Wu Li 吳歷

Wu Xiongguang 吳熊光

Wu Zhiliang 吳志良

Xi wangyang paotai 西望洋炮台 Forte de Nossa Senhora da Penha de Fran~'ca

Xi wangyang shan 西望洋山 Colina da Penha

Xiangshan 香山

Xiangshan ao 香山嶴

Xiangshan xianzhi 香山縣志

Xiangshan'ao li Ba 香山嶴里巴

xianling 縣令

Xiao men San 小門三 Porta Pequena

Xiao Sanba men 小三巴門 Porta Pequena de S~~ao Paulo

Xinkai men 新開門 Porta de Seng Hoi

Xu Ruke 徐如珂

Xu Xin 徐新

Xuan 宣

Xue Wen 薛馧

Xunji shu 巡緝署

Xunshi Aomen ji 巡視澳門記

Ye Quan 葉權

Yeluni paotai 耶路炮台 Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario

Yin Guangren 印光任

Yirenmiao 醫人廟

Yishi ting 議事亭

Yiwei 乙未

Yiyi 乙已

Yongfugu she 永福古社

Yongfugu she chongxiu beizhi 沙梨頭永福古社重修碑志 16-17 shiji Aomen de zongjiao he maoyi zhong zhuangang zhi zuoyong 16-17 世紀澳門的宗教和貿易中轉港之作用

Yu Anxing 喻安性

Yu Dayou 俞大猷

Zaoqi Amen quantu 早期澳門全圖

Zhang 丈

Zhang Rulin 張汝霖

Zhang Tingyu 張廷玉

Zhang Weihua 張維華

Zhang Weiming 鄭煒明

Zhang Wenqin 章文欽

Zhang Zengming 章憎命

Zhang Zengxin 章憎信

zhichi 指尺

Zhiliang miao 支糧廟 Grain Providing Temple

Zhongguo wenhuashijisuo 中國文化史籍所

Zhu Huai 祝淮

zongbing 轂兵

zongdu 阪督

** Translator's note: One zhang is about ten feet, or ninety centimetres.

*** Translator's note: Name transliterated from Chinese.

**** Translator's note: One zhichi is about nine inches, or twenty two and a half centimetres.

NOTES

1 Historical research into the history of Macao is at present a topic which is ignored by historians.

See: FLORES, Jorge, The History of Macao During the Sixteenth Century: Open Questions and Possible Queries, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau, ser. 2 (19) April/June 1994, pp. 11-16.

2 GUO Fei 郭棐, Waizhi 《外志》(Foreign Affairs), in "Guangdong tongzhi" “廣東通志” ("Guangdong Records"), fasc. 69.

3 WANG Shixing 王士, Jiangnan zhusheng 《江南諸省》 (Provinces South of the Yangtze), in "Guang zhiyi" "廣志繹" ("Studies on the Historical Records of Guangzhou"), fasc. 4.

4 YU Dayou 俞大猷, Lun shang Yi bude shigong ciheng 《論商夷不得恃功恣橫》 (Preventing the Foreigners From Being Proud of Their Success and Indulging in Their Pleasures), in "Zhengqi tangji" "正氣堂集" ("Collected writings from the Zhengqi Temple"), fasc. 15.

5 WANG Shixing 王士, op. cit.

6 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin張汝霖, Aomen jil~#ue 《澳門古今》 (Monograph of Macao), part. 1, chap.: Guanshou pian《官守篇》(Governance).

7 PANG Shangpeng 龐尚鵬, Fuchu Haojing Ao-Yi shu 《撫處濠鏡澳夷疏》(Memorial Concerning the Appeasement of the Foreigners Resident at Haojing Bay), in "Baiketing zhaigao" "百可亭摘稿" ("Excerpts from the Baike Pagoda"), fasc. 1.

8 Idem.

9 YE Quan葉權, You Lingnan ji《游嶺南記》 (Record of Journey to Lingnan), in "Xian bo bian "“堅博編” ("On the Virtuous and the Wise").

10 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, Cronologia da Hist~'oria de Macau (Chronology of the History of Macao), 4 vols., Macau, Direc~'c~~ao dos Servi~'cos de Educa~'c~~ao e Juventude, 1992-1998, vol. 1 -- S~'eculos XVI-XVII (Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries).

11 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, PEREIRA, A. B. de Bragan~'ca, pref. and annot., Livro das plantas de t~^odas as fortalezas, cidades e povoa~'c~~oes do Estado da India Oriental/por Ant~'onio Bocarro / guarda-m~'or da Torre do Tombo de Goa e Cronista da India (In~'edito da Biblioteca P~'ublica de ~'Evora) (Book of the plans of all the Fortresses, Cities and Towns of the State of East India [...]), in "Arquivo Portugu~^es Oriental" (nova edi~'c~~ao), tome IV -- Hist~'oria Administrativa, vol. 2-- 1600-1699, part. 1, Bastor~'a / ~'India Portuguesa, Tipografia Rangel, 1937.

See: BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, Macau, 1635; Descri~'c~~ao da Cidade do Nome de D. s da China (por Antonio Bocarro, Cronista-Mor do Estado da India/Macau, 1635: Description of the City of the Name of God in China (by Antonio Bocarro, Chronicler-in-Chief of the State of India); in BOXER, Charles Ralph, Macau na ~'Epoca da Restaura~'c~~ao (Macao Three Hundred Years Ago), in "Obra Completa de Charles Ralph Boxer", Lisboa, Funda~'c~~ao Oriente, 2 vols. [to follow], 1933, vol. 2, pp. 19-47 [Portuguese/English bilingual text].

Also see: BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, Book of the Plans of all the Fortresses, Cities and Towns of the State of East India, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 (33) October/ December 1997, pp. 69-86.

12 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit.

13 PANG Shangpeng 龐尚鵬, op. cit.

14 WU Guifang 吳桂芳, Yizu Ao Yi jingong shu 《議阻澳夷進貢疏》(Memorial Concerning the Payment of Tribute by the Foreigners in Macao), in "Ming jingshi wenbian"" 明經世文編 " ("Ming Documents on Social Affairs"),fasc. 342.

15 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, op. cit.

16 ZHANG Tingyu 張廷玉, Folangji zhuan 《佛郎機間》(Notes on the Portuguese), in "Mingshi" " 明史 " ("Ming History"), fasc. 325.

17 GUO Shangbin 郭尚賓, Fang Ao fang Li shu “防澳防黎疏” (Memorial on the defence of Macao), in "Guo gei jianshu gao " " 郭給諫疏稿 " ("Memorials Presented to the Emperor by Guo Shangbin"), fasc. 1.

18 BRAGA, Jos~'e Maria, The western pioneers and their discovery of Macao, Macao, Imprensa Nacional, 1949.

19 GUO Fei 郭棐, op. cit.

20 TAN Shibao 譚世寶, Aomen Mage miao de lishi kaogu yanjiu xinfaxian 《澳門媽閣廟的歷史考古研究新發現》(New Archaeological Findings: The History of the Ama Temple in Macao), in "Wenhua zazhi" "文化雜誌" Revista de Cultura" / "Review of Culture", Aomen 澳門 Macao, Aomen Wenhua Sishu 澳門文化司署 Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2, (29) Winter [October/December] 1996, pp. 88-109; TAN Shibao 譚世寶, New Archaeological Findings: The History of the Ama Temple in Macao, Macao, Instituto Cultural de Macau, ser. 2, (30) January / March 1997, pp. 4-33.

21 GUO Fei 郭棐, Zhiguan 《秩官》 (Administrative Hierarchy), in" Guangdong tongzhi" "廣東通志" ("Guangdong Records"), fasc. 10.

22 ZHANG Zengming 章憎命 Aocheng kuozhan jingguo 《澳城擴展經過》 (The Process of Macao's Expansion), in "Aochengji" "澳城記" ("Notes on the City of Macao"), no 3, in "Aomen zhanggu" " 澳門掌故" ("Anecdotes of Macao"), no 6, in "Aomen ribao" "澳門日報 " "Macao Daily", Aomen 澳門 Macao, 13th June 1961.

23 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.50.

24 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》 (Brief History of Churches in Macao), in "Aomen jiaoqu lishi zhanggu wenzhai" “澳門教區歷史掌故文摘” ("Excerpts from Anecdotes of the Parish History of Macao") [unpublished typescript].

25 WANG Yining 王以寧, Qing juanshui shu 《清蠲税疏》("Memorial Presented to the Emperor Concerning the Reduction of Taxes" ), in "Dongyue shucao "“東粵疏草” ("Records of Eastern Guangdong"), fasc. 1.

26 WANG Yining 王以寧, Tiaochen haifang shu 《條陳海防疏》 (Memorial Reporting on Maritime Defence), in "Dongyue shucao" " 東粵疏草" ("Records of Eastern Guangdong"), fasc. 5.

27 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit, p.64.

28 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, The Japanese in Macao, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 (17) October/December 1993, pp. 154-172.

29 Idem.

30 ZHANG Zengming 章憎命 Da Sanba pai fang xiangkao《大三巴牌坊詳考》 (Detailed Investigation on St. Paul's Church Ruined Fa~'cade), one of "Aomen zhanggu" "澳門掌故 " ("Anecdotes of Macao"), in Aomen ribao" "澳門日報" "Macao Daily", Aomen 澳門 Macao,1st-5th September 1959.

31 BOXER, Charles Ralph, 16-17 shiji Aomen de zongjiao he maoyi zhong zhuangang zhi zuoyong 《16-17世紀澳門的宗教和貿易中轉港之作用》 (The Role of the Trading Post in Religion and Trade in Macao in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries), in "Zhong-Wai guanxi shi yicong" "中外關係史譯叢 "("Translated Writings on the History of Sino-Foreign Relations"), Shanghai 上海, Yiwen chubanshe 譯文出版社 Translation Publishers, [y. n. n.], vol. 5, pp. 81-103 -- Chinese translation of an article in "Tohogaku" ["Dongfangxue" "東方學"] "Oriental Studies",(47) [d. n. n.], pp. 1-37 [in Japanese].

32 TIAN Shenglin 田生金, Bianwen jin yifeiqiu shu 《辨問矜疑罪囚疏》 (Report on Pity for Criminal Suspects), in "An Y~#ueshu gao" " 按粵疏稿" ("Verification of Draft Reports of Guangdong"), fasc. 6.

33 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, op. cit., p. 163.

34 BOXER, Charles Ralph, op. cit.

35 PIRES, Benjamim Videira, Os extremos conciliam-se: transcultura~'c~~ao em Macau, Macao, Instituto Cultural de Macau, 1988, chap. 11: O foro do ch~~ao (Land Rent) -- Where it mentions that five rent registration notebooks of 1689 are preserved in the Biblioteca do Leal Senado (Library of the Senate), Macao.

36 RESENDE, Barreto de, "Map of Macau by Pedro de Resende / in Livro das Plantas de todas as Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoa~'c~~oes do Estado da ~'India Oriental, (1634, Ant~'onio Bocarro)" {sic}, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 1(10) June/July/August 1990, "RC POSTER" in between pp. 36-37.

37 ER~'EDIA, Manuel Godinho de, [Map of Macao: ca1615-1622], in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 1995-1999, subscription page.

38 VINGBOONS, Johannes, "Platte Grond van Stadt Macao, waer ia aen geweesen wordt de voornasemste Plaetsen der Stadt -- Macao" {sic}, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 1 (13/14) January/June 1991, p.291.

Also see: "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 (19) April/June 1994, p.14-- "Platte Grond vande STADT MACAO.".

39 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, op. cit.

40 WANG Shixing 王士,op. cit.

41 WANG Linheng 王臨亨, Zhiwaiyi 《志外夷》(Records of the Foreigners), in "Yuejianpian ""粵劍篇" ("Report on Weapons in Guangdong"), fasc. 3; WANG Linheng 王臨亨, Jiuyue shisiriye huajifu 《九月十四日夜話記附》 (Supplementary Notes From Conversation on the Night of 14th Day of 9th Month), in "Yue jian pian" "粵劍篇" ("Report on Weapons in Guangdong"), fasc. 4.

42 Idem.

43 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, op. cit.

44 LAM, Domingos, Rijian zhuozhuang de Aomen Huaren defang jiaohui 《日漸茁壯的澳門華人地方教會》(The Increasingly Stable Local Chinese Church in Macao), in"Aomen jiaoqu lishi zhanggu wenzhai" "澳門教區歷史掌故文摘" ("Excerpts from Anecdotes of the Parish History of Macao") [unpublished typescript].

Also see: Chongzhen zhangbian 《崇禎長編》 (Reports of the Chongzhen period), fasc. 24 -- The text reads: "[In the Chongzhen reign, year three, month five], Lu Shaolong,~L. Director of the Department of Documentation of Rituals, reported that living in Macao there are no fewer than twenty or thirty-thousand degenerates from Fujian~L. who provoke various incidents. There are also innumerable fugitive lawless thieves from Guangdong." The population from Fujian and Guangdong was of this order in Chongzhen~L. reign, year three [CZ 3 = 1630], which is consistent with Domingos Lam's account.

45 Chongxiu Sanjie huiguan beiji 《重修三街會館碑記》 (Inscription Recording the Reconstruction of the Three Streets Guildhouse),-- Qianlong reign (r.1736-~+|1795).

See: ZHANG Zengming 章憎命, Sanjie huiguan 《三街會館》 (Three Streets Guildhouse), in "Huiguan tanwang" "會館談往" ("Guildhouses of the past"), no 1, in "Aomen zhanggu" " 澳門掌故 " ("Anecdotes of Macao"), no 11, in "Aomen ribao" "澳門日報 " "Macao Daily", Aomen 澳門 Macao, 11th September 1962.

46 CHEN Wude 陳吾德, Tiaochen Dongyue shu 《條陳東粵疏》 (Memorial Reporting on Eastern Guangdong), in "Xieshanluo cungao" " 謝山樓存稿 " ("Documents kept in Xieshanlou"), fasc. 1.

47 ZHANG Zengming 章憎命, 11th September 1962, op. cit.

48 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.63.

49 BOXER, Charles Ralph, Folangi dong lai 《佛郎機東來》 (The foreigners come East), in "Zhong-Wai guanxi shi yicong" "中外關係史譯叢" ("Translated Writings on the History of Sino-Foreign Relations"), Shanghai 上海, Yiwen chubanshe 譯文出版社 Translations Publishers, [y. n. n.], vol. 4, [p. n. n.].

50 BRY, Theodore de," Amacao, 1607", in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 1(13/14) January/June 1991, POSTER in between pp. 306-307.

Also see: XU Xin 徐新, Helan huajia bixia de Aomen - 16 zhi 17 shiji liangfu tongbanhua kaozheng 荷蘭畫家筆下的澳門: 16至17世紀兩幅銅版畫考証》 (Macao as Portrayed by a Dutch Artist: A Study of Two Sixteenth-Seventeenth Century Copperplate Engravings), in "Aomen ribao" "澳門日報" "Macao Daily", 12th October 1997.

51 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》 (Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.

52 PIRES, Benjamim Videira, op. cit.

53 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, The fourth centenary of the jesuits at Macao, Macau, Escola Salesiana / Salesian School, 1964.

54 ZHANG Weiming 鄭煒明, Zongjiao xinyang 《澳門宗教》 (Religious Beliefs), in WU Zhiliang 吳志良, "Aomen zonglan 澳門總覽 " ("Macao Readings"), Aomen 澳門 Macau / Macao, Aomen Jijinhui 澳門基金會 Funda~'c~~ao Macau / Macao Foundation, 1996 [2nd edition].

55 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi jiaotang 《澳門早期教堂》(Early Churches in Macao), in "Aomen Xianggang zhi zaoqi guanxi" " 澳門香港之早期關係 " ("Early Relations Between Macao and Hong Kong"), Taibei 台北, Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan / Jindaishi Yanjiusuo 中央研究院近代史研究所 Research Institute for Modern History / Central Research Institute, 1990, chap. 5.

56 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》 (Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.

57 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

58 HUANG Qichen 黃啟臣, Aomen zongjiao《澳門宗教》(Religion in Macao), in "Aomen lishi" "澳門歷史" ("History of Macao"), Aomen 澳門Macau / Macao, Aomen Jijinhui 澳門基金會 Funda~'c~~ao Macau / Macao Foundation, 1995, chap. 8 [2nd edition].

59 LI Pengzhu 李鵬翥, Aomen gujin (Macao Past and Present), p. 150. Aomen 澳門 Macao, Aomen xingguang chubanshe 澳門星光出版社 Macao Starlight Publishers, [d. n. n.].

60 ZHANG Weiming 鄭煒明, op. cit.

61 HUANG Qichen 黃啟臣, op. cit.

62 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

63 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

64 BOXER, Charles Ralph, Folangji dong lai《佛郎機東來》 (The foreigners come East), op. cit.

65 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

66 WU Guifang 吳桂芳, op. cit.

67 YE Quan 葉權, op. cit.

68 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮 op. cit.

69 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

70 A Ordem de S~~ao Francisco em Macau (The Order of St.Francis in Macao), in "Anais de Macau"[" 亞拿以斯 "], "Macau Annuals" [?], Macau/ Cartas ~^Anuas da China (Annual Letters from China) [?], GOUVEIA, Ant~'onio de, ed., Colec~'c~~ao [Collection] Documenta 1, Lisboa-Macau, Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa - Instituto Portugu~^es do Oriente, 1999; LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue《澳門聖堂史略》 (Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.; SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.53.

71 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

72 A Ordem de S~~ao Francisco em Macau (The Order of St. Francis in Macao), in "Anais de Macau " ["亞拿以斯"], "Macau Annuals" [?], Macau/ Cartas ~^Anuas da China (Annual Letters from China) [?], op. cit.

73 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》(Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.

74 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.63.

75 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin, 張汝霖 op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

76 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》(Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.

77 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.64.

78 FANG Hao 方豪， Fang Hao liushi ziding gao 《方豪六十自定稿》 (Sixty articles by Fang Hao).

79 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

80 ZHU Huai 祝淮, Haifang 《海防》 (Maritime Defence), in"Xiangshan xianzhi " "香山縣志" ("Xiangshan County Records"), fasc. 4.

81 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》 (Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.

82 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

83 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.53.

84 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, Aomen jil~#ue 《澳門古今》(Monograph of Macao), Supplement:Aomen zhengmian tu 《澳門正面圖》 (Map of Macao in Anterior View) -- This map shows the Great Temple in the south-eastern part of Macao, but another map Aomen cemian tu 澳門側面圖 (Map of Macao in Lateral View) has the label "Da Sanba" 大三巴 ("Big St. Paul's") next to St. Paul's Church. The Map of Macau in Lateral View is clearly in error.

85 Qingdai waijiaoshi ke--Jiajing chao《清代外史-嘉靖》 (Materials relating to the history of foreign policy during the Qing Dynasty -- Jiajing reign), fasc. 2: "Memorial presented by Wu Xiongguang,~L. Viceroy of Guangxi and Guangdong, and others, concerning the situation of the English ships which had still not yet departed despite military force having been used against them in accordance with a previous edict, with a map of Macao attached."

86 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

87 LAM, Domingos, Aomen shengtang shil~#ue 《澳門聖堂史略》 (Brief History of Churches in Macao), op. cit.

88 HUANG Qichen 黃啟臣,op. cit. -- The author confuses the "Longsong miao" 龍嵩廟 ("St. Augustine's Church") with the 'Da Sanba' 大三巴 (lit.: 'Big St. Paul's'). - The author calls "Da Sanba" 大三巴(lit.: "Big St. Paul's") to 'St. Paul's Church', referred to in Lu Xiyan's 陸希言 Aomen ji 《嶴門記》 (Notes on Macao).

ZHANG Wenqin 章文欽, Aomen yu Zhonghua lishi wenhua 《澳門於中華歷史文化》 (Macao in Chinese History and Culture), 1995, p.91.

The sources consulted by these works are not known.

89 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, op. cit.

90 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, The Church in Macao, in CREMER,R. D., ed., "Macau: City of Commerce and Culture", Hong Kong: University of East Asia Press Ltd., 1987, pp. 39-49.

91 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.60.

92 TANG Xianzu 湯顯祖, Yeyu 《謁遇》 (Respectful Meeting), in "Mudanting" "牡丹亭" ("Peony Pagoda"), no21.

93 ZHANG Zengming 章憎命 Da Sanba pai fang xiangkao《大三巴牌坊詳考》(Detailed Investigation on St. Paul's Church Ruined Fa~'cade), [op. cit.], 1st-5th September 1959.

94 GONG Xianglin 龔翔麟, Xiangshan'ao 《香山嶴》 (Xiangshan Bay), in WANG Shizhen 王士幀, "Chibei outan" "池北偶談 " ("Chance Conversation North of the Pond"), fasc. 21.

95 MUNDY, Peter, Descri~'c~~ao de Macau em 1637 (Description of Macao in 1637), in BOXER, Charles Ralph, ed. and trans., "Macau na ~'Epoca da Restaura~'c~~ao - Macau three hundred years ago", Macau, Imprensa Nacional, 1942, pp. 53-75 [reprint: Hong Kong, Heinemann (Asia), 1984, pp. 41-42].

96 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖 op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

97 ZHANG Wenqin 章文欽, Aomen yu Ming-Qing shidai de Zhongguo tianzhu jiaotu 《澳門與明清時代的中國天主教徒》 (Macao and Chinese Catholics in the Ming and Qing Dynasties), in "Aomen yu Zhong hua lishi wenhua" 澳門於中華歷史文化" ("Macao in Chinese history and culture"), 1995, p.135, note 14.

See: HUANG Qichen 黃啟臣, op. cit., apud YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2,chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao) --"Kangxi 康煕 reign, year eighteen [KX 18 = 1679]."

98 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, The Church in Macao, op. cit., pp. 41-42 --The author cites a letter from the first Governor of Macao, Dom Francisco de Mascarenhas, who wrote that when he came to Macao in 1623, the forts on Colina da Guia (Guia Hill) and Colina da Penha (Penha Hill) were already in the early stages of construction. A commemorative inscription in Portuguese on the Penha Fort records the date of construction as "1622". However, the author holds that it was already in existence in "1620", but that the official opening ceremony was held on 29th April 1622.

The forts and the churches were built simultaneously on Guia Hill and Penha Hill.

See: GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

99 ZHANG Weiming 鄭煒明, op. cit. {sic.}

100 LAM, Domingos, op. cit., and GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit. -- These authors hold that St. Clare's Church was built in "1633"; HUANG Qichen 黃啟臣, op. cit., and ZHANG Weiming 鄭煒明, op. cit. -- Both these authors say "1634".

101 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, PEREIRA, A. B. de Bragan~'ca, pref. and annot., Livro das plantas de t~^odas as fortalezas, cidades e povoa~'c~~oes do Estado da India Oriental, op. cit.

102 Aomen jiewu shuotie 《澳門界務説帖》 (Communications on Macao Border Matters).

Also see: Riben yijian 《日本一鑒》 (Inspection of Japan) -- "[...] it is also said that in the city [the foreigners] they manufacture bronze cannons." This confirms the existence of the factory in 1557.

103 BU Yi 布衣, Aomen zhanggu 《澳門掌故》 Anecdotes of Macao), Aomen 澳門 Macao, Guangjiaojing chubanshe 廣角鏡出版社 Guanjianjing Publishers, 1979.

104 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.122.

105 GUO Shangbin 郭尚賓, op. cit.

106 QU Dajun 屈大均, Guangdong xinyu 《廣東新語》 (New Words of Guangdong), fasc. 2: Aomen 《澳門》 (Macao).

107 LI Ruixiang 李瑞祥, Aomen meishu fazhan de sige shiqi 《澳門美術發展的四個時期》 (Four Periods in the Development of the Arts in Macao), "Haojing" "濠鏡" (1) 1986.

108 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

109 TEIXEIRA, Manuel, 1963, op. cit.

110 Idem.

111 REGO, Diogo Caldeira, A Short Report on the Conditions of the City of the [Holy] Name of God [in the] Kingdom of China, Since Its Beginnings to the Year 1623, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 (33) October/December 1997, pp. 51-58, p.54.

112 LIU Xianbing 劉羨冰 - LAU Sin Peng 劉羨冰 Aomen Sheng Baolu xueyuan lishijiazhi chutan 《澳門聖保祿學院歷史價值初探》 (Preliminary Study of the Value of St. Paul's College in Macao), Aomen 澳門 Macau / Macao, Aomen Jijinhui 澳門基金會 Funda~'c~~ao Macau / Macao Foundation, 1994.

113 REGO, Diogo Caldeira, op. cit., p.54

114 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

115 BLUSS~'E, L~'eonard, Chinese trans., Zhong-Hejiaowang shi 《中荷交往史》 (History of Sino-Dutch relations), Aomen澳門Macao, Lukoudian chubanshe 路口店出版社 Corner Shop Publishers, 1989, chap. 3: Amsterdam: 0. Cramwinckel. [Original title: Tribuut aan China: vier eeuwen Nederlands-Chinese betrekkingen (Tribute to China: Four Eras of Sino-Dutch Relations) ].

116 GUO Fei 郭棐, op. cit.

117 BRY, Theodore de, op. cit.

118 RESENDE, Barreto de, op. cit.

See: BRAGA, Jos~'e Maria, Hong Kong and Macao (a record of good fellowship): a tribute to the memory of prince Henry "the navigator" on the occasion of festivities in his honour, in "Not~'icias de Macau", 1960, Supplemento especial (Special Supplement), p.29 -- The author suggests that the map was made in "1632", although the the fa~'cade of the church of St. Paul's Church, which is depicted on the map, was not constructed until 1637.

119 ZHANG Tingyu 張廷玉,op. cit.

120 QU Dajun 屈大均,op. cit.

121 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 1, chap.: Xingshipian 《形勢篇》 (On the Current Situation).

122 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., Supplement: Aomen Yishiting tu 《議事亭圖》 (Plan of the Macao Office of Administration).

123 WU Li吳歷, Sanba ji 《三巴集》(Collection of Poems about St. Paul's), in "Ao zhong zayong" ":嶴中雜詠" ("Miscellaneous Poems of a Settlement by the Sea").

124 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen jiucheng qiangjie kao《澳門舊城界考》 (The Old City Walls of Macao), in "Aomen Xianggang zhi zaoqi guanxi" "澳門香港之早期關係" ("Early Relations Between Macao and Hong Kong"), Taibei 台北, Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan / Jindaishi Yanjiusuo 中央研究院近代史研究所 Research Institute for Modem History/ Central Research Institute, 1990, chap. 3.

125 BAO Yu 暴煜, Huanji: Wangchuo zhuan 《宦績：王綽傳》 (Accomplishments of Officials: Wangchuo), in "Xiangshan xianzhi" "香山縣志" ("Xiangshan County Records"), fasc. 6.

126 TAN Shibao 譚世寶 1997, op. cit., p.6 and ill. 3 -- the author mentions the record of an inscription in the Hongren dian 弘仁殿 (Hall of Great Benevolence) in the Mazu ge (miao) [or Mage miao] 媽閣廟 (Ama Temple): "Built by the merchants of Dezi jie 德字街 [Dezi Street] in year Yisi 乙已 [1605] of the reign of the Wanli Emperor in the Ming dynasty."

The origin of the Ama Temple is a complicated issue, on which there are competing theories in other articles. In any event, the official construction date of the temple (ie the building which already functioned in an official capacity) was without doubt Wanli reign, year thirty three [WL 33=1605].

127 Shalitou Yongfugu she chongxiu beizhi 沙梨頭永福古社重修碑志 (Inscription Commemorating the Reconstruction of the Yongfugu Temple at Shalitou, Republic of China, year thirteen [RC 13 = 1925] mentions that this temple was "[...] built at the end of the Ming dynasty and reconstructed during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor r.1522-~+|1567]."

See: ZHANG Zengming 章憎命, Shalitou tudi miao 沙梨頭土地廟 (Temples at Patane), in Gumiao xiaozhi ("Tales of Ancient Temples"), no 1, in "Aomen zhanggu " "澳門掌故"("Anecdotes of Macao"), no [?], in "Aomen ribao" "澳門日報" "Macao Daily", Aomen 澳門 Macao, 1962, 30th June 1962.

128 JIAO Qinian 焦祈年, Xunshi Aomen ji 《巡視澳門記》 (Report of an Inspection of Macao), in "Xiangshan xianzhi" "香山縣志" ("Xiangshan County Records"), fasc. 9.

129 WU Li 吳歷, op. cit.

130 QU Dajun 屈大均 op. cit.

131 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., Supplement: Qingzhou tu 青洲圖 (Map of the Green Island).

132 ZHANG Weihua 張維華, Mingshi Ouzhou siguo zhuan zhushi 《明史歐洲四國傳注釋》 (Annotated Edition of the Ming History: Four European Countries), Shanghai 上海, Guji chubanshe 古籍出版社 Antiquarian Press, 1982, p.50.

133 ZHU Huai 祝淮,, op. cit.

134 YE Quan 葉權 op. cit.

135 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.49.

136 FRUTUOSO, Gaspar, Segundo Livro das Saudades da Terra (Second Book of Memories of Lands), in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 (33) October/December 1997, pp. 15-20, p.19.

137 CHEN Wude 陳吾德, op. cit.

Also see: Mingshi 《明史》(Ming History), fasc.: Chen Wude 《陳吾德》 (Chen Wude).

138 BRY, Theodore de, op. cit.

139 PASTELLS, Pablo, S. J., Cat~'alogo de los documentos relativos a las Islas Filipinas existentes en el Archivo de Indias de Sevilla Por D. Pedro Torres y Lanzas / precedido de una erudita HISTORIA GENERAL DE FILIPINAS por el P. PABLO PASTELLS, S. J. (Catalogue of Documents relating to the Philippines in the Indies Archives at Seville [...]), 4 vols., Barcelona, Obra editada por la Compa~~nia General de Tabacos de Filipinas com testimonio de afecto al Archip~'elago Magall~'anico, 1925-1928 [tome 1 --(1493-1572) Desde los primeros descubrimientos de Portugueses y Castellanos en Oriente, Occidente y Mediodi~'a, Hasta la Muerte de Legazpi); apud ZHANG Zengxin 章憎信, "Mingji dongnan Zhongguo de haishang huodong " 明季東南中國的海上活動" ("Maritime activity in southeastern China during the Ming dynasty"), vol. 1, pp. 253-254.

140 FRUTUOSO, Gaspar, op. cit., p.20.

141 CHEN Wude 陳吾德, op. cit.

142 Mingshi 《明史》 (Ming History), fasc.: Chen Wude 《陳吾德》(Chen Wude).

143 BLUSS~'E, L~'eonard, op. cit.

144 Ming Shenzong shilu 《明神宗實祿》 (Record of Events of the Shenzong Period of the Ming Dynasty), fasc. 257: Wanli reign, year forty two, month twelve, Yiwei [WL 12: 42=1614].

145 SHEN Deqian 沈德潛, Xiangshan'ao 《香山嶴》 (Xiangshan Bay), in "Wanli yehuo bian" " 萬歷野獲編" ("Records of the Accession of the Wanli Emperor"), fasc. 30.

146 SILVEIRA, Lu~'is da, "est. 837 -- c. 1607 -- Atlas Caliposense", in SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p. 85, top illustration.

147 FANG Kongzhao 方孔照, Hail~#ue 《海略》 (Maritime Strategy) in "Quanbian l~#ueji" " 全邊略記" ("Record of Border Strategy"), fasc. 9.

148 SHEN Deqian 沈德潛, op. cit.

149 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 1, chap.: Guanshou pian 《官守篇》 (Governance).

150 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.84 -- The author states that ["1617 [was...] the probable date of the beginning of the [...]"l construction of the "[...] Fortaleza de S~~ao Paulo ou do Monte ["St. Paul's or Mount Fortess"] [...]."

See: ZHANG Zengming 章憎命, {Da Sanba pai fang xiangkao 《大三巴牌坊詳考》 (Detailed Investigation on St. Paul's Church Ruined Fa~'cade), [op. cit.], 1st-5th September 1959?} -- The author puts the date at" 1612".

151 LJUNGSTEDT, Andrew, An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settlements in China; and of the Roman Catholic Church and Mission in China, by Sir Andrew Ljungstedt, Knight of the Swedish Royal Order of Waza. A supplementary chapter, Description of the City of Canton, republished from the Chinese Repository, with the editor's permission, Boston, James Monroe & Co., 1836, pp. 22-23 [2nd edition: Hong Kong, Viking Hong Kong Publications, 1962].

152 ZHU Huai 祝淮,, op. cit.

153 Dom Francisco Mascarenhas wrote in a letter that: "When we arrived in Macao in 1623, the fortresses of St. Paul's, Guia Hill, St. Francis, Penha Hill, Barra Temple and [Nossa Senhora do] Bom Parto (Our Lady of Good Delivery) were all taking shape."

See: GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, op. cit.

154 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p. [?].

155 GAO Rushi 高汝式 ,Chen Xichang zoushu 《陳熙昌奏疏》 (Chen Xichang's Memorial to the Emperor), in Huang Mingfa zhuanlu--Xuji 《皇明法傳錄（續記）》(Record of Ming Imperial Edicts --Continuation), fasc. 13.

156 Xiangshan xianzhi 《香山縣志》 (Xiangshan County Records).

157 ZHANG Tingyu 張廷玉, op. cit.

158 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., pp. 88-89.

159 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., p.73.

160 DA ER BO 達爾波 [name transliterated from Chinese], Dongtu Zhibao 《東土之寶》 (Treasures of the Orient.); apud GUO Yongliang 郭永亮 op. cit.

161 Ming Qing shiliao 《明清史料》(Historical Materials of the Ming and Qing Dynasties), vol. 2, chap.: Aoyi zhucheng cangao 《澳夷築城殘稿》(Fragmentary Records of City Construction by the Foreigners in Macao), p.614.

162 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.85,

163 JESUS, Carlos Augusto Montalto de, Historic Macao: International Traits in China: Old and New, Hong Kong, Kelly and Walsh, 1902 [2nd edition: Macau, Salesian Printing Press - Tipografia Mercantil, 1926; 3rd edition: Hong Kong - New York - Melbourne, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1984].

164 Ming Xizong shilu 《明熹宗實錄》(Record of Events of the Xizong Period of the Ming Dynasty), fasc. 58: Tianqi reign, year five, month four [TQ 4:5 = 1626].

165 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., p.73.

166 Idem.

167 ZHANG Zengming 章憎命, Sanbai nian qian zhi Aomen《三百年前之澳門》 (Macao Three Hundred Years Ago), in "Aochengji" " 章憎命" ("Notes on the City of Macao"),no. 6, in "Aomen zhanggu " "澳門掌故" ("Anecdotes of Macao'), no [?], in "Aomen ribao" " 澳門日報" "Macao Daily", Aomen 澳門 Macao, 3rd June 1961.

168 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

169 Chongzhen zhangbian 《崇禎長編》 (Reports of the Chongzhen Period), fasc. 4. Bingzhen (Chongzhen reign, year three, month twelve [CZ 12:3 = 1630]).

170 RESENDE, Barreto de, op. cit.

171 YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao).

172 ZHU Huai祝淮, op. cit.

173 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi paotai 《澳門早期炮台》 (Early Fortresses in Macao), in "Aomen Xianggang zhi zaoqi guanxi" "澳門香港之早期關係" ("Early Relations Between Macao and Hong Kong"), Taibei 台北 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan / Jindaishi Yanjiusuo 中央研究院近代史研究所 Research Institute for Modem History/ Central Research Institute, 1990, chap. 4.

174 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., p.73.

175 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi paotai 《澳門早期炮台》(Early Fortresses in Macao), op. cit.

176 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., p.73.

177 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi paotai 《澳門早期炮台》 (Early Fortresses in Macao), op. cit.

178 Idem.

179 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., p.72.

180 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi paotai 《澳門早期炮台》 (Early Fortresses in Macao), op. cit.

181 Idem.

182 The following table charts the number of cannons which various sources attribute to each of these six fortresses.

FORTS AND style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	BOCARRO,  lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family: 宋体;mso-fareast-font-family:黑体'>	YIN Guangren	LU Kun:
FORTRESSES style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	Ant~'onio:  lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family: 宋体;mso-fareast-font-family:黑体'>	ZHANG Rulin:	Panorama
	Macao, 1635 [...]	Monograph	of Guangdong's
x:str=" ">	x:str=" ">       style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	x:str=" of macao ">  of macao  style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	Defense
lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>St. Paul style="mso-spacerun: yes">  style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	18	28	47
lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Guia style="mso-spacerun: yes">   style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	5	7	20
lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Penha style="mso-spacerun: yes">  style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	2	5	13
lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Barra style="mso-spacerun: yes">  style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:宋体;mso-fareast-font-family: 黑体'>	18	26	29
lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>St. Francis lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family: 宋体;mso-fareast-font-family:黑体'>	7	7	18
lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Bom Parto lang=EN-US style='font-size:10.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family: 宋体;mso-fareast-font-family:黑体'>	6	3	3

BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., pp. 71-74 -- The author records the number of fortresses in Macao at the end of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

YIN Guangren 印光任 - ZHANG Rulin 張汝霖, op. cit., part. 2, chap.: Ao Fan pian 《澳番篇》 (Foreigners in Macao) -- These authors record the number of fortresses in Macao during the Qianlong period (r.1736-~+|1796).

LU Kun 盧坤, Guangdong haifang huilan 《廣東海防匯覧》 (Panorama of Guangdong's Maritime Defences), fasc. 32: Fangl~#ue 《方略》 (General Plan) no21, -- The author numbers the cannons of each of the fortresses in Macao during the Daoguang period (r.1821 -~+|1851), with sizeable discrepancies from the other two.

The above table shows that the number of cannons at each fortresses increased steadily, with the exception of the Fortaleza de [Nossa Senhora do] Bom Parto (Fortress of Our Lady of Good Delivery), where the number of cannons gradually decreased.

183 RESENDE, Barreto de, op. cit.

184 The two additional fortresses, besides those mentioned in the work by Ant~'onio Bocarro cited earlier, are the Forte de S. Jo~~ao (St. John's Fort) and the Fortaleza de S~~ao Janu~'ario (St. January's Fortress).

NAVARRETE, Domingo Fern~'andez de, Tratados Historicos Politicos, Ethicos, Y Religiosos De La Monarchia de China. [...], Madrid, En la Imprenta Real. Por juan Garcia Infan~'con. A costa de Florian Anisson, Mercador De Libros, 1676.

See: NAVARRETE, Fern~'andez, CUMMINS, J. S., ed. and trans., The Travels and Controversies of Friar Domingo Navarrete 1618-1686 [...], 2 vols., Cambridge, Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1960-1962 [second series, vol. 1, noCXVIII, 1960; vol. 2, no CXIX, 1962] Also see: NAVARRETE, Domingo Fern~'andez, Travels and Controversies, in "Review of Culture", Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau / Macau Cultural Institute, ser. 2 (33) October/December 1997, pp. 109-120, p.112.

185 GUO Yongliang郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi paotai 《澳門早期炮台》 (Early Fortresses in Macao), op. cit.

186 SILVA, Beatriz Basto da, op. cit., p.44.

187 RESENDE, Barreto de, op. cit.

188 GUO Yongliang 郭永亮, Aomen zaoqi paotai 《澳門早期炮台》(Early Fortresses in Macao), op. cit.

189 BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, 1997, op. cit., ill. p. 71.

Also see: BOCARRO, Ant~'onio, CID, Isabel, ed., Livro das Plantas de todas as Fortalezas, cidades e povoa~'c~~oes do Estado da ~'India Oriental, Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional - Casa da Moeda, 1992, ill. XLVII.

* Professor of the Zhongguo wenhuashijisuo~L. (Chinese Historical and Cultural Resource Centre) at Jinan Daxue~L. (Jinan University), Guangzhou. ~L. This article is one of a series of commissioned articles funded by a grant from the "Aomen Wenhua Sishu"~L. ("Instituto Cultural de Macau").