DE MISSIONE LEGATORUM IAPONEN SIUM*

[INTRODUCTION]

Around 1579, the Jesuit Fathers in active service in the Far East, presented with the astounding success gained by the Catholic mission in the Japanese archipelago, decided to organise the sending of a diplomatic mission included four young Japanese men to Catholic Europe. The arrival of these exotic envoys contributed in bringing the important role performed by the Company of Jesus in christianising the far off Asian world to the fore, facilitating a renewed enlisting of human and material support. Apart from this the Japanese were able to confirm the prevalence of the Catholic Church in southern European regions, a fact which certainly increased the already significant prestige enjoyed by the Ignacians in the Empire of the Rising Sun. The enterprise substantiated itself thanks to the special diligence of Fr. Alessandro Valignano who at time carried out the function of Visitor of the Jesuit mission, and the Japanese ambassadors left Nagasaki in February of 1582, to make a lengthy circumnavigation which took them first to Macao, Goa, then Lisbon, Madrid and Rome, from where they set off again to return to Japan, where they arrived six years later.

Alessandro Valignano outlined a project of publishing a description of the journey, which would be prepared from the diaries kept throughout the journey by the young Japanese men. In order to reach a wider international public, this work was to be written in Latin. The task was assigned to Fr. Duarte de Sande, an eminent Latinist who carried out various duties for the Society of Jesus, and in 1590 the Jesuit printing presses, which had just arrived from Europe, printed there in Macao the itinerary of De Missione Legatorum Iaponen Sium ad Romanam curiam, rebusq; in Europa, ac toto itinere animadvertiu. [In Macaensi portu Sinici regni in domo sis Societatis IESV cum facultate ordinarij, et superiorum, Macau, 1590] in the form of a dialogue, a literary form which is extremely rare today. Far more than a simple description of a voyage, the work transforms itself into a real cultural and geographical encylopedia, with sections dedicated to the main regions visited by the diplomatic mission. One of these sections was specifically dedicated to China and in it were included some unpublished accounts from a European point of view which had just been acquired from the interior of the Middle Kingdom by Jesuit missionaries, and Fr. Matteo Ricci especially. He had managed to secure that much sort after permission to enter Chinese territory from 1583. The following extract presents an enthusiastic but quite accurate image of Chinese reality, just as it appeared to Europeans at the end of the sixteenth century.

18

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CHINA

LINO

Regarding the Chinese kingdom (Miguel) which is our closest neighbour, we hear and continue to hear reports on a daily basis, which we would like to ask you for a more factual rather than broad description about it. And if you know of anything else on top of what they constantly say as rumours circulating among us, we will listen to you attentively.

MIGUEL

By virtue of the accounts regarding this famous kingdom which are common among us, 1I will attempt to reveal the truth about things, placing into order the great amount of varied information received from Fathers of the Society [of Jesus] who are presently living in China. 2

Firstly, it is known that of all areas of the main continent, 3 this kingdom of China is the farthest east, apart from some islands, like our native Japan4 and the Island of Manila, 5 which are found farther east of China itself. As far as the limits and frontiers of this kingdom are concerned, we can cite a particular island which lies further west, commonly known as Hainan, · which is situated at a latitude of nineteen degrees north. 6 The neighbouring continent to this island extends to the east, until a place where the promontory of the city called Nimpó · or Liampó ·7 is found. However, continuing further north from this place, it spreads out into such a great expanse, that the inhabitants of this far away area of China see the North Pole rise at least fifty degrees, or perhaps even more. As far a one can readily assume (allowing me to speak as an astrologer) the latitude of this kingdom is really enormous as it extends from north to south for more than five-hundred and forty leagues. What is said as far as longitude is concerned, calculating from east to west, is still not as accurately calculated that it can be expressed in degrees. 8

However it is certain that in the map which the Chinese describe the kingdom's area, its latitude does not exceed the longitude by very much.

Undoubtedly therefore, this kingdom is the largest and most extensive of the kingdoms on earth; as apart from several other kings being under their jurisdiction which in total are larger and more extensive that all of China, not one of them possesses a kingdom as extensive and large as the one ruled by the very powerful king of China. 9

Now if we were to enquire what were his incomes and taxes, the truth is that this king, compared to all others, is endowed with the greatest and richest, both with regard to the fertility and grandeur of his land, as to the payments due by rights to him. Taxes are demanded from his subjects not only for the land, houses and goods, but also for the number of people per family. It should also be understood that practically no gentleman or prince in China has the right to charge, for their own use, any form of rent or to collect any taxes in the interior of their domains, as this power is solely in the hands of the king. In Europe it is more commonplace to find the contrary, as already mentioned. 10

There are fifteen provinces in this vast kingdom, each one of which could be considered as a large kingdom in itself. Six of these provinces have sea borders, namely Guangdong, · Fujian, · Zhejiang, · Nanzhili, · Shandong, ·[and] Beizhili. ·11 The other nine provinces inland are called Jiangxi, · Huguang, • Henan, • Shaanxi, • Shanxi, • Sichuan, • Guizhou, • Yunnan • and Guangxi. • 12

Among all the provinces referred to, two are designated for the seat of the Court of the king and the royal throne, that is to say, Beizhili for the Northern Court and Nanzhili for the Southern Court. The Chinese kings usually live in the southern court, but later, because of the several bloody wars unleashed by the Tartars, they were forced to establish their seat and residence in the far off northern province. 13

For this reason, the kingdom's northern confines have a great abundance of fortifications, war machinery and garrisons for soldiers.

LEÃO

Among this military equipment, I have heard them speak of a strange and admirable wall, with which the Chinese people control and resist the attempts made by the Tartars to invade their territories.

MIGUEL

In reality, this wall that you have heard them speak of is worthy of great admiration, as it runs the length of the borders of three northern provinces, Shaanxi, Shanxi and Beizhili. They say that it extends for almost three hundred leagues in length. 14 And [they also say] that it is built in such a way that it does not interfere with the course or currents of any of the rivers, as its substructure it crossed and fortified with magnificent bridges and other defences. It is not therefore improbable that this very wall is built in such a way as to protect and surround the passageways underneath and on the side, as the mountains between these passages are low, due to their own natural resistance and inaccessible height, a fortification which is effective against the enemy.

LINO

Tell us (Miguel) if the Chinese kingdom is or is not as populated with people as we have often been told?

MIGUEL

It is truly (Lino) a very populated kingdom, as the Fathers from the Company have assured me, who, having seen several provinces in Europe reputed to have a great quantity of inhabitants, enormously admire the infinite multitude of people in China. Nevertheless, these multitudes are not disorderly and confusingly spread around the country, but very conveniently distributed in their villages and famous cities in an orderly fashion.

Besides there are different kinds of districts among the Chinese, firstly they have certain cities which are called fu • 15 other smaller cities called cheu • 16 and a third kind called hien, • 17 which are really fortified towns, but they are not granted the importance and privileges given to cities. These can grow into two other kinds of smaller towns, which are partly villages and partly soldiers' garrisons. The first and main kind belongs to this noble city situated near the port of Macao, called Coanchefu • by the Chinese, but the Portuguese usually call it Canton, which is foremost the general name of the province and was a name they had given. 18 The third kind refers to a small town, which is still closer to Macao's port, which the Portuguese call Ansão, • but Hiansanhien • by the Chinese. 19

However, all the provinces referred to have their bigger cities, called fu and smaller cities called cheu which can grow into the other towns. Apart from this, in each province there is a designated capital, which they call the provincial capital, where the important mandarins live, like Guangzhou, the capital city just mentioned which is the head of all the province. The number of major cities throughout the kingdom is over one-hundred and fifty, and there are others, or rather a small number of minor cities. With regard to the fortified towns not granted municipal privileges, there are more than one-thousand one-hundred and twenty. The villages and garrisons have not been counted. Apart from the aforementioned localities, there are an incredible number of farms and estates, as it is not easy to find an uninhabited, empty area in the whole country. 20

Then at sea and on the rivers there is such an abundance of people and entire families living on boats, which even Europeans find fascinating; so much so that some, in spite of having no justification, believe there to be as many people living on water as on land. 21However they were not led to believe this without justification, because as the Chinese kingdom is criss - crossed by various rivers and also great expanses of water in all directions, with barges and boats being very common everywhere, one could easily deduce that the number of people on water equalled those living on land. However this should be understood as an exaggeration, while, in fact, the towns swarm with people and the countryside with peasants.

LEÃO

The abundance of people we are talking about seems very strange, for I presume the soil should be very fertile, the air very healthy and the whole kingdom should be in peace.

MIGUEL

You presume those three characteristics quite correctly Miguel, my friend, as they all stand out in such a way, so that it is not easy to discern which of the three is the most excellent in this kingdom. And on this point one sees the concept forming among the Portuguese that this Chinese kingdom has never experienced the three great and lamentable scourges of humanity which are war, famine and pestilence. Yet this opinion is more popular than true, given that there have been terrible internal civil wars, like the one recorded in many very reliable accounts, 22 and some provinces in this kingdom, even in our time, have been plagued by pestilence and contagious diseases, and famines too. Still, it cannot be denied that the three advantages referred to flourish and are enormously abundant in China. 23

Then, speaking firstly on the healthy air, the very Fathers of the Society [of Jesus] bear witness that it is rare to find so many people who live until such an advanced old age in any other kingdom, such is the multitude that exists there of distinguished and aged people of importance. And they do not even use so many medicines and preparations, nor many or different methods or curing illnesses like we usually see in Europe, as they do not practise bleeding or venesection. 24 But all their remedies, like ours in Japan, are achieved through fasting, herbal infusions and light, gentle potions. In this regard, however, one can leave each nation to follow its own customs. 25

However, with reference to the land's fertility, this kingdom certainly is outstanding, surpassing all the other kingdoms in the East. Although this is nothing compared to the wealth and abundance of Europe, as already referred to at length in previous accounts. 26 But the Chinese kingdom in this regard is highly exaggerated because there is no other region in areas of the Far East which has such an abundance of goods and from where such overseas trade is made. As this great kingdom is full of navigable rivers, in such a way that is facilitates the transport from one province to the other. The Portuguese found such abundance of produce in the one city, 27 that it is perhaps the biggest trade centre in the whole kingdom, that they are convinced that this same region, among all the other oriental regions, is the most abundant in merchandise.

There are different kinds of merchandise in fact which China has more of than any other kingdom. This region especially supplies various kinds of metals, of which the main one, equally in quality as in quantity, is gold. So much is brought from China to India and to our country, Japan, that I have heard it said that in just one ship this year, 28 two-thousand pieces of solid gold, usually called loaves of gold by the Portuguese, were taken to our country. One of these loaves is worth almost one-hundred ducats. 29 For this reason the Chinese kingdom has so many things decorated in gold, like beds for example, tables, engravings, pictures, and sedan chairs, in which the beautiful and delicate ladies are transported on their servants' shoulders. The Portuguese not only buy their loaves of gold, but also a great quantity of gold thread and gold leaf, as the Chinese easily manage to beat and mould gold into sheets and leaves. There is also a great reserve of silver, of which, to shorten my debate, serves to demonstrate the fact that the Portuguese merchants annually bring to the city called Guangzhou, to by goods, at least four-hundred sestertius of it, and not one is then taken out of the Chinese kingdom. Because the Chinese have an abundance of basic goods, are not very curious or desirous of other merchandise from other kingdoms. I am leaving out the silver mines, which exist in a great number in China, even though there is great secrecy surrounding its extraction, because the king fears that this may provoke and awaken ambition and longing for wealth in many people. The silver they use is mainly reasonably fine and free of impurities, as they are meticulous in purifying it. What is there to say about iron, copper, lead, tin and other metals, and also about their mercury? There is a great abundance of all of these in the Chinese kingdom, and they are transported from there to several countries. To this can be added the marvellous quantity of pearls which are extracted from shells regularly gathered by certain divers on the Island of Hainan, and they greatly add to the king's taxes.

Now, however, we shall deal with silk or the threads of the silk worm, of which there is a great profusion in China, such that, just as the farmer works in fertilising the land and planting rice, the women devote a lot of their time looking after the silk worms and in spinning and weaving the silk. For this reason, the king and queen come to the main square every year with great solemnity, with him blessing the plough and her the mulberry tree, as its leaves are those which the silk worms feed on; and with this ceremony both of them praise the men and women for their respective work and activities. Otherwise nobody sees the king throughout the whole year except important mandarins. This silk or thread of the silk worm exists in such abundance that they annually load up three ships with it between India and Macao and at least one to our country, 30 and it is not only used in India but also taken to Portugal. It is not only raw silk that is transported over there, but also different varieties of fabric woven from it, because the Chinese are skilful in the art of weaving and they are very similar to our European fabrics. 31

The Chinese kingdom also has a great abundance of essences and very rare spices, especially cinnamon (however not comparable to the cinnamon from Ceylon), 32 and camphor33 and also musk, which is very good and plentiful. 34 The musk takes its name from the animal of the same name, which is similar to a beaver, the limbs of which, after being beaten and rotted, give off an extremely delicate aroma which the Portuguese greatly appreciate. The popular name for the parts of the animal they use is pouch because it resembles birds' pouches, and they take a great amount of it to India, and to us in Japan. But who would believe that there was such a quantity of gossypine35 or cotton branches in China. A great variety of articles of clothing are made from it, similar to those in linen; of which we often use ourselves, which are also shipped overseas to many places.

We will now look at the clay moulding substance commonly known as porcelain, which is completely white and should be considered as the best material of its kind in the world, with which they very skilfully make crockery of all types. I say it is the best clay in the world for three reasons, namely: its purity, its beauty and its durability. There actually exists another more splendid and precious material, but not as free of impurities nor as durable, which is glass, which is truly clean and perfect, but it breaks easily. This substance is not mined in all China, but only in fifteen provinces, in Jiangxi, where many of the workers are continually employed for this task. They not only make small pieces, like cups, plates, salt cellars, jars and other objects, but also vessels and enormous jars in great quantity, very fine and skilfully decorated, of which, because of the danger and difficulties involved in manoeuvring them, are not transported outside the kingdom, but are used within China, especially at the royal Court. The beauty of this material is that it is enhanced by the variety of paintings, which are done in certain colours, applied immediately after being made, which are mixed with gold, and which makes the porcelain seem even more beautiful. The way the Portuguese value it is admirable, once they had transported it, with great difficulty, not only to Japan but to India, and to various European countries.

The merchandise referred to above can be added to with the different and varied plants, whose roots are very healthy for men's bodies and for many medicines and are taken over to out islands in Japan, and also to other islands. Among them is found a root which, by a synecdoche, is called China root, which has the notable property of releasing the humours capable of curing contagious diseases from man's body. 36 These can grow as big as sugar cane, because in the Chinese kingdom there are large reserves of excellent sugar, which are transported by the Portuguese in great quantities, both to our country and to India.

What I have just said refers only to merchandise, which many other nations benefit from, apart from this kingdom. What is said with regard to the fruits which are part of their daily diet and the normal foods they eat, is difficult to enumerate here. All in all, the land in China is not suitable for the cultivation of the three stable foods which are given so much importance in Europe, namely: cereals, vineyards and olive trees; 37 and the Chinese have never heard of the name olive, the fruit from which the oil is extracted, nor of that which makes wine. The province of Beizhili is not completely without wine, but it has been brought from other places or it is made there, I cannot be sure. There is an abundance, however, of many other liquors, which are not unpleasant and which could substitute wine. Now, with reference to cereals, there is in reality a wheat planted in all the provinces [Chinese], but rice is far more used and sought after than wheat. Therefore, as far as these two useful things for man is concerned, namely, wine and cereals, the Chinese kingdom can be compared to Japan.

Translated from the Portuguese by: Linda Pearce

For the Portuguese translation see:

SANDE, Duarte de, LOUREIRO, Rui Manuel, intro., De Missionem Legatorum Iaponensium, in "Antologia Documental: Visões da China na Literatura Ibérica dos Séculos XVI e XVII", in "Revista de Cultura":, Macau, 31 (2) Abril-Junho [April-June] 1997, pp. 122-127 -- For the Portuguese modernised translation by the author of the original text, with words or expressions between square brackets added to clarify the meaning.

For the original source of the Portuguese translation, see: [SANDE, Duarte de - VALIGANANO, Alessandro] LOUREIRO, Rui Manuel, ed., Um Tratado sobre o reino da China dos Padres Duarte Sande e Alessandro Valignano, Instituto Cultural de Macau, 1992, pp.33-47 [1st edition: Macau, 1590] & Partial transcription.

NOTES

Numeration without punctuation marks follow that in Duarte de Sande's original text selected in Rui Loureiro's edited text in "Revista de Cultura" (Portuguese edition), Macau, 31 (2) Abril-Junho [April-June] 1997, pp. 126-127.

The spelling of Rui Loureiro's edited text [Port.] is indicated between quotation marks and in italics <" " > & unless the spelling of the original Portuguese text is indicated.

1 In fact around 1590 several descriptions of China were circulating in Portugal and some of them were printed works with large circulations. The most famous of all these descriptions was certainly Friar Gaspar da Cruz's Tratado das Cousas da China [...] (Treatise in which Things of China are related at great length [...]). (See: Text 11 & Gaspar da Cruz)

2 The Italian Jesuits, Matteo Ricci (°1552-†1610) and Michele Ruggieri (°1543-†1607), who were the first Catholic missionaries in modern times to be given permission by the Chinese authorities to establish themselves in the countryside of the Middle Kingdom, founded the mission of Zhaoqing · in Guangdong province, in 1583.

3 "[...] do continente principal, [...]" ("[...] the main continent [...]"): Euro-Asia.

4 The conversation supposedly took place between two young Japanese.

5 This is the Island of Luzon in the Philippines.

6 The 20th parallel touches the northern coast of Hainan.

7 "Nimpó ("Nimpó") [or] Liampó" [Port.] ("Liampó") = Ningbo· [Chin.], in the Zhejiang · province.

8 This observation could be referring just as much to the Europeans' discovery of inland China, as to the technical impossibility of measuring the exact longitude. In any case, it is worth mentioning that is was not uncommon for Jesuit priests to have accurate astronomical and cosmographical knowledge.

9 When calculated to European standards, China's exaggerated expanse never stopped surprising Portuguese observers.

10 This is a reference to a previous section in this work.

11 "Coantum" • [original Port.] ("Guangdong") = Guangdong [Chin.]; "Foquiem" • [original Port.] ("Fujian") = Fujian [Chin.]; "Chequiam"• [original Port.] ("Zhejiang") = Zhejiang [Chin.]; "Nanquin" • [original Port.] ("Nanzhili") = Nanzhili [Chin.], in this context; "Xantum"• [original Port.] ("Shangdong") = Shangdong; and "Paquim" • [original Port.] ("Beizhili") = Beizhili [Chin.], in this context.

The metropolitan area of Nanzhili comprises of the present day provinces of Anhui • and Jiangsu, • and the metropolitan area of Beijing comprises the present day province of Hebei •.

12 "Quiansi" • [original Port.] ("Jiangxi") = Jiangxi [Chin.], "Hunquam"• [original Port.] ("Huguang") = Huguang [Chin.], "Honan"• [original Port.] ("Henan") = Henan [Chin.], "Xiensi" • [original Port.] ("Shaanxi") = Shaanxi [Chin.], "Xansi" • [original Port.] ("Shanxi") = Shanxi [Chin.], "Suchuon" • [original Port.] ("Sichuan") = Sichuan [Chin.], "Queicheu" • [original Port.] ("Guizhou") = Guizhou [Chin.], "Junan" • [original Port.] ("Yunnan") = Yunnan [Chin.], and "Coansi" • [original Port.] ("Guangxi") = Guangxi [Chin.].

The former province of Huguang comprises the present day provinces of Hunan • and Hubei.

13 The Ming's • capital, in actual fact, was relocated from Nanjing • to Beijing around 1420, as a response to the growing threat of the Tartars who, in those days frequently made predatory incursions across the northern borders of the Middle Kingdom.

14 The Great Wall of China today runs from the actual province of Gansu • to the Gulf of Zhili, a distance of roughly two thousand seven hundred kilometres. [sic]

15 "fu" [Port.] ("fu") = fu [Chin.]: a Chinese district as well as its main city. Often, large contemporary Chinese cities overtook their European counterparts in size.

16 "cheu" [Port.] ("cheu") = zhou • [Chin.]: a Chinese county dependent on a fu (district), as well as its main settlement.

17 "hien" [Port.] ("hien") = xian • [Chin.]: a Chinese municipality.

18 Since their first contacts with China in 1513, the Portuguese called the city of Guangzhou, • "Cantão" • [Port.] ("Canton")• confusing the name of the city with the name of the province where is was situated. This mistake ended up becoming the norm, influencing other European languages later. This appears to be the first written account pointing out the mistake.

19 "Hsiansanhien" [original Port.] or 'Ansão' • [Port.] ("Hiansanhien") = Xiangshan • [Chin.]. The Chinese government authorities who had their seat in this city ran the administration of Macao.

20 Chinese contemporary sources generally gave the following figures at the end of the Ming dynasty: 159 fu (districts), 240 zhou (counties) and 1144 xian (municipalities), numbers which roughly coincide with these.

21 The first Portuguese to arrive in Guangzhou mentioned with astonishment the incredible number of people who continuously live on water, making their boats their permanent homes.

22 The author would certainly repeat the knowledge of Chinese sources made by the Jesuit missionaries, among them Fr. Matteo Ricci, stands out for the thoroughness and the scope of his knowledge of Chinese culture and language.

23 The author seems to have been the first European author to attempt to rationalise the incredibly positive image of Chinese which had been spread by Portuguese travellers and writers in the sixteenth century.

24 In ancient European medicine, blood letting was treatment often used, and abused, at the first signs of any illness.

25 Due to being relatively uncommon, it is important to emphasise this attitude of rank intolerance when confronted with certain values and practices from other peoples and civilisations.

26 A reference to other sections of the work.

27 "[...] mesma cidade [...]" ("[...] the one city, [...]"): Guangzhou.

28 Certainly in 1589.

29 Trade between Japan and China, which since 1549 and practically for a century, was in the hands of Portuguese intermediaries, and consisted mainly in the exchange of silk and Chinese gold, much appreciated in Japan, for Japanese silver, highly valued in the Middle Kingdom's commerce.

30 "[...] a nossa terra [...]" ("[...] our country, [...]"): Japan.

31 The author is speaking here as a European, perhaps without thinking, momentarily abandoning his character of a Japanese príncipe (prince).

32 In fact, China produced a variety of cinnamon inferior to that from Ceylon [presently Sri Lanka]. Some writers even suggest that the name 'cinnamon' meaning 'amon from China'.

33 China was a great producer of botanical camphor in Asia at the time.

34 Musk: a strongly aromatic substance segregated in the preputial follicles of the musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus), a common ruminant native of the Tibetan plains. Musk was used in making perfumes and pharmaceuticals.

35 "gossipina" ("gossypine"): a fibre similar to cotton.

36 "raiz-da-china " [original Port.] or 'pau da china' [Port.] ("[...] China wood [...]" or 'wood'): a very common root stalk in those parts to which were attributed numerous therapeutic properties, namely in combating illness from venereal disease.

37 The importance given by the author to the trilogy of staple foods for people in the Mediterranean is significant: "cereais" [singular: 'cereal' ](lit.: "cereal[s]" or 'bread'), "vinha [s]" (lit.: "vineyard [s]" or 'wine') and "oliveira [s]" (lit.: "olive tree[s]" or 'olive oil').

* First Edition: Macao, 1590.