Ethnology

Goa's Famous Cordial Stone

Ana Maria Amaro*

J. Curvo Semmedo, Memorial de Varios Simplices...

Cordial stones have been famous since ancient times. They are part of classical Greek and Arabian medicinal practices. Their use reached its peak in Portugal between the XVIth and the XVIIIth centuries, when they were used as a heart tonic and for calming fevers, plagues and other poison-related ills.

In accordance with their name, cordial stones were specific remedies for heart problems. Pliny described a 'cordial' as a remedium cordi utile, cordi conveniens, cordi auxilians. (1) By extension, it came to be used for shocks, general upsets and as a remedy against palpitations. Semantics give us no clue, however, as to the pharmaceutical properties of cordial stones.

The remedies used in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries against any kind of venom were classified as 'bezoardic', which gave the name to the bezoar stones. These were used in treating cases of poisoning. (2) In my opinion, the so-called bezoar stones must have been the first cordial stones to be employed in medical treatment in the Middle East and from there were brought to Europe by the Arabs.

The term appears in varying forms in many medical texts dating from the XVIth and XVIIth centuries. The substance was widely used in the Orient and consisted of a calcium secretion formed in the stomach of the bezoar goat (capra aegagrus). It built up in concentric layers around a residue of straw or a certain medicinal herb which they grazed on. It was ground into a powder before being used as a sudorific cardiac and lithotryptic treatment against all poisons and contagious diseases. Being, as it were, 'a friend to the heart' all heart medicines came to be described as bezoardic.

Even now, it is generally recognised that this medication had been identified by the Persians, Arabs and Saracens as pazar, the etymological derivative of 'bezoar'. The word seems to have come from the Persian term pa zahar meaning 'against poison' due to its principal use. The word was corrupted and passed from pedra pa-zahar to pedra bezoar until it became known in Goa as pedra bazar. The 'bazaar' was the market where this medication would have been sold so it is easy to see how this became the common name for the product in India and the name which the Portuguese used when they took it to other places.

Master Afonso, a surgeon who travelled from India to Portugal in the XVIth century, mentioned bezoar stones. He said they were ground into a powder, and a quantity of two or three grains (3) added to a spoonful of rose water should be given to patients.

Garcia d'Orta (1563) and Cristóvão da Costa (1588, Tradição de las Drogas y Medicinas de las Indias Orientalles) also mentioned the popularity of this medicament in the Orient. The latter stated that at that time it had been seen in Goa as 'the most universal, useful antidote to all venoms, both for inter nal and external uses.'

At that time, several kinds, sizes and colours of bezoar stones were sold. Many of them were adulterated copies, as the real product was costly and quite rare. (4)

According to Cristóvão da Costa, by the mid-XVIth century there were people in Goa who could adulterate bezoar stones using clay, ground oyster shells, dry blood and small-sized genuine bezoar stones, thus reducing the price. This mixture was so well ground that they appeared to be genuine.

The powerful Society of Jesus which dominated scientific thought in Portugal for nearly two centuries made a significant impression on the preparation of medicines and treatment of patients. They regarded it as an important part of their religious missions, a way in which they could gain prestige and also introduce their doctrines to both rich and poor homes. Many of their medicines became famous even though the men who made them imbued them with a miraculous quality, by preparing them always in a room which contained the relics of the stone's patron saint, holy water and whilst making the sign of the cross. (5)

Wherever the Society of Jesus built a college, it also established a well-stocked apothecaries' dispensary. Jesuit specialists devoted long hours to studying natural remedies and native healing methods. Many of them were to bring renown to their Order and remain as salient figures in the history of natural science.

Hence various new medications could be found in the Jesuit dispensaries. How to make them was a well-kept secret because as long as they cured people, they brought in a good income for the Order. One of the most famous medications, large quantities of which were imported to Lisbon each year (6), was the compound cordial stone from the College of St. Paul's in Goa. The stone was so famous, and consequently so valuable, that it was frequently imitated or, even worse, adulterated, by apothecaries in Gao who then exported it to Portugal. This was detrimental to the Jesuit Fathers who had kept the genuine recipe secret and thus maintained their monopoly of the trade.

Following a complaint made to the King by the men of the Church, a Royal Charter was sent to the Governor of India in 1675 stating that only the genuine article could be exported, 'in view of the fact that the other pharmacists were making them without a true knowledge of the materials and without the required ingredients.'

Experience was to show that even this kind of prohibition was not enough to put a stop to speculation and that false stones were still being sent to Lisbon. In response to this the King sent the Governor of India another Royal Charter dated the 6th of March, 1691 indicating that 'the purveyor of the Casa da Índia will not allow stones to be delivered unless accompanied by a certificate showing that they were prepared by the apothecaries' dispensary of St. Paul's...' and ordering that' the new ones shall be made into a different shape to distinguish them from the falsified ones.'

From that point on, the Casa da Índia, where all goods from India were delivered, only accepted stones which had a certificate guaranteeing their authenticity.

The Cordial Stone of Goa was held in high esteem and was consumed in enormous quantities, not only in Portugal but all over the world, particularly where the Jesuits had colleges.

Macau can have been no exception, given its strong links with Goa. In fact, the Cordial Stone of Goa was so popular in Macau that there are still Macanese who keep the stone for their own use.

Doctor John Freyer (7) visited Goa in 1675 and noted that the Jesuits had the largest convent, called São Roque. He wrote: 'it contains a bookshop, a hospital and an apothecaries' dispensary which is well-stocked with remedies and where Gaspar António, a Floretine lay brother in the Society and creator of the Goan stones brings in an annual income of fifty thousand xerafins for the House through his labour. Now he is old and almost blind but he is held in great respect because of his long experience in practising medicine and because of this he is called to the homes of all the important people in the City'. (8) This description would indicate that the cordial stone dates from the middle of the XVIIth century and that it has thus survived for three centuries in Macau. During the XVIIIth century it was so greatly valued that in 1714 five stones weighing a total of five ounces were included in the tithe to be paid by residents of the city to the Emperor of China. (9) The price paid for these stones at that time was in fact extremely high: twenty ounces of cordial stone were equivalent to ten bars of gold. (10)

It seems to have been in Macau and Goa that Gaspar António's cordial stone enjoyed the greatest perpetuation. Inventions wrought by the passing of three centuries were not able to weaken the faith in its properties. In this respect it was more fortunate than many household remedies, some of which were no more than off-shoots of the original item.

The stones which have lasted until now are rectangular prisms covered in gold leaf. The powder is extremely white and almost tasteless or tasting of clay unless it has been slightly sweetened.

As I mentioned above, the original recipe was a well-kept secret. When Brother Gaspar António died, it was passed to Father Jorge Ungarate, who in turn passed it on to the other pharmacists who succeeded him in the Apothecaries' dispensary of the College in Goa.

In 1759, when the Jesuits were exiled from Portuguese territory, the secret recipe was handed over to the Capuchin Fathers of the Convent of the Mother of God in Goa. The medicament was prepared in their apothecaries' dispensary until 1835, at which point their convent also became extinct. The recipe then fell into the hands of Father Manuel do Carmo Pacheco who had been Provincial Father for the Capuchins.

The famous stone was then prepared by him until he died in the Convent of St. Francis in Goa of which he was the head. He gave the secret to a lay friend who was still preparing cordial stones as late as 1868 and sending them to Macau where there was still a great demand for them. (11)

After this date, the passage of the recipe can no longer be traced. Although the Macanese were still using the Cordial Stone of Goa regularly at the beginning of this century, by the time the Pacific War came to an end, the wave of modernisation which swept aside many of the traditions upheld by the 'sons of the earth' (the Macanese) (12) had also meant that the remedy was no longer sold in Macau. Neither could it be bought in Goa. The remaining stones were carefully stored and only brought out on the direst occasions: heart failure in dying patients, convulsions and other childhood illnesses caused by shock. There are still people who have these stones in their possession and who use them for therapeutic purposes. The truth is, however, that this practise has been almost completely abandoned because stones themselves are extremely rare and because the younger generation do not believe in their worth.

With the assistance of Father António Leite, SJ, I was able to obtain a microfilm copy of a valuable manuscript held in the Jesuit Archives in Rome. This manuscript is mentioned by the Reverend Father Serafim Leite, SJ, (13) in his monumental work on the Society of Jesus in Brazil.

The manuscript contains a vast number of recipes of the period which were used in the pharmacies of the great colleges of the Society of Jesus. It was copied in 1776 by a member of the Society, either a father or a brother, who was probably a doctor or apothecary. Two recipes for cordial stone appear in this manuscript along with a third one, somewhat similar in nature, for "artificial bezoar stone" from the apothecaries' dispensary of the College of Macau. The three recipes were prepared in the same way from several identical mineral-based ingredients which were ground according to the particular medical trend in favour at the time.

This supports my view that Gaspar António's cordial stone was, as it were, an artificial copy of the bezoar stone which was very popular in Goa during the XVIth century. Furthermore, the shape which can still be seen in Macau is an elongated cylinder or prism, rather like a gilded stick of chalk which, according to Garcia d'Orta, was one of the most frequent shapes of bezoar stone in Goa.

We shall now examine the genuine recipe for Cordial Stone and compare it with the mixtures which appeared in XVIIIth century pharmacopeias. The following recipe is taken from pages 310-311 of the Pharmacopea Tubalense (1735) (14) quoting from the Pharmacopea Bateana, p. 133 (15).

The true recipe is given in the manuscript to be found in the Jesuit Archives in Rome and is as follows:

First Version

Cordial Stones, commonly called after Gaspar António of the College of St. Paul's in Goa:

Seed pearls

Musk

Ambergris

Red coral

White coral

Emeralds

St. Paul's tongues

Topazes

White earth from St. Paul's

Rubies

Cannanore stone

Jacinths

Charred antler

Sapphires

Oriental bezoar stone

It was to be prepared in the following way:

Each ingredient should be ground separately. Then, once they have been ground they are mixed together and ground again with a mortar and pestle with orange flower water. Once they have been well prepared, they are dried in the shade and fermented for six months or a year. Do not add the bezoar stone, the ambergris and the musk as yet.

Pharmacopea Tubalense (facsimile edition, P.310)
Facsimile of the manuscript in the Jesuit Archives in Rome (pp.262,263 and 264)
The fermented dried paste is ground again with flower water or any other aromatic water. Half the bezoar stone ground to a very fine powder is added and mixed well. The mixture is rolled into balls and put out to dry and ferment in a dark place. When they are dry they are put back in the mortar with any aromatic water and once a good consistency is obtained, the mixture is divided into ovalshaped balls weighing (half an ounce) of (one ounce) or (two ounces) or the size that is required. Then they are put in a dark place to dry out. Then the other half of the bezoar stone is taken and ground as fine as possible with the musk, ambergris and flower water in a mortar made of ivory or stone until a soft paste is obtained. The mixture is used to coat the balls which by now are dry or nearly dry. Several layers are applied until the paste is used up. The balls are then put back into the shade. An incomplete or unscented version of these balls can be prepared in the same way but without ambergris or musk. They should be made when dry winds are blowing, otherwise they can crack open. This also happens when the balls have not been fermented long enough. Ambergris Musk Camphor Spodium Topazes Sapphires Rubies Emeralds Garnets Armenian bole Clay Antler Rhinocerus tusk shavings Ivory shavings Crab's-eyes Red coral White coral Seed pearls Oriental bezoar stone Shape into round balls. Prepare in the same way as the above recipes. They can be used in the following way: Ten grains can be taken against malign or burning fevers causing thirst, it quenches thirst and lightens the heart, routing out malign vapours. It can be taken with broth made from a cow's tongue (16). As can be deduced from an analysis of these secret recipes, the Apothecaries' Dispensary in Macau was also engaged in producing the Cordial Stone of Goa, leaving out the Cannanore stone and adding to the mixture shavings from rhinocerus tusk and camphor, amongst other things. This was perhaps done due to influence from Chinese medicine. There is a slight difference between the two recipes for cordial stone prepared in Goa. The second one does not include the so-called 'tongues of St. Paul', probably because these were difficult to obtain or had fallen out of use. Maltese earth is mentioned instead of the earth from St. Paul's, but in fact this was the same ingredient. As far as the recipe included in the Pharmacopea Tubalense is concerned, it can be noted that gold leaf is mentioned, an addition to the original recipe. The Maltese earth, tongues of St. Paul, the white and red coral and also the antler are omitted. Moreover, the method for making it was quite different as it advocated using the slime from tragacanth to bind the ingredients together and the tusk of a wild boar to give a sheen to the mixture once it was finished. Given that the original recipes were copied in 1766, shortly after the Jesuits had been expelled from their Portuguese colleges and that a recipe which appeared in the Pharmacopea Bateana of 1713 was written into the Pharmacopea Tubalense in 1735, it would seem that the recipe was not in fact altered by those preparing it, but that rather they were making a mere guess at the original formula which may have been partially divulged, but the main part of which remained a secret. It could also be that the recipe in the Pharmacopea Tubalense is for one of the false Goan stones which were exported under the pretence of having been prepared in the Jesuit apothecaries' dispensary. It is still true, however, that the gold leaf which can be detected on the stones which have survived up to now is not mentioned in the original recipe. It may have been adopted simply as an attractive, valuable wrapping or else as a way to distinguish the genuine stones in response to the Royal Charter of 1691. Moreover, it would seem, from the stones that I have seen in Macau, that they also came either unwrapped or wrapped in silver leaf which would indicate that they were available in a variety of different qualities and prices. In turn, the wrapping would appear to reflect their wide use amongst social classes with varying purchasing power and not simply their place of origin. Whether this is true or not has not been possible to prove. The people in Macau of varying social class who had cordial stone from Goa in their possession in the sixties and seventies only used it when it was covered with gold leaf. On one of the samples, the gold leaf was no longer anything but a token covering and on another it could not be detected, possibly because of the heavy use which had been made of the stone, which was by then very small and old.
Manuscript from the Jesuit Archives in Rome, P.267.

It is worth examining the ingredients of the above three recipes in order to reach some conclusions about their therapeutical and symbolic value. I shall follow the order in which they appear in the recipes.

1 - Seed pearls are globular, usually white and slightly silvery secretions. In medical documents, seed pearls and mother-of-pear are often confused.

Real pearls are secretions which are produced as a mechanism against foreign bodies by lamellibranchiate molluscs of the Margaritifera genus comprising around thirty species. They are rich in calcium.

Harvesting of pearls began in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, mainly in the Persian Gulf, off the Sri Lankan coast, Japan, Bahrain, in the Pegu Sea and in several parts of China. In the West, they were harvested in the Mexican Gulf and the West Indies.

There have been various theories concerning the origin of pearls. According to Pliny, they were 'made from the morning dew which oysters received by opening their mouths for this very purpose'. Others believed them to be the eggs of the oyster.

In the East, however, they were thought to be the product of an electrical charge- the union of fire and water.

Oriental pearls were the most highly valued, especially when they were round, white and transparent. Only seed pearls were used for medical purposes. According to the ancient pharmacopoeias, the whitest, most transparent pearls with no flaws should be used in prescriptions. Oriental pearls were believed to be cordial and were used for treating poisoning, building up strength and purifying the blood, and they were considered better than any other alkaline in counteracting acids. For this reason they were employed to great advantage in the treatment of haemorrhages and other similar illnesses. Usually, between one half and two scruples (17) were ground into a very fine powder and used.

Seed pearls were sometimes adulterated with burnt ground antler or any other bone. The adulteration can be discovered by burning. If the powders turn even whiter, they are adulterated, if they remain the same colour, they are pure. During the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, however, pearl powder was frequently adulterated to reap greater profits.

The pearl, originally prized for its metaphysical and cosmic symbolism, its wealth of 'beneficial sacred energy', became a decorative item which was then valued only from an aesthetic and economic point of view. (18)

This change was achieved through a series of gradual stages. In both Western and Oriental medicine, for example, pearls were used for treating haemorrhages and also for treating demonic spirits and madness. (19).In India, the famous Indian doctor Susruta used pearls in his prescriptions. Nazahari, a doctor working in Kashmir around 1240 also wrote that the pearl was 'a remedy for sickness in the eyes, a suitable antidote in cases of poisoning, a cure for consumption and a health tonic'. (20)

Harschacarita thought that pearls came from the tears of the god of the seas (his tears were believed to be the source of an eternal ambrosia). Moreover, he thought that pearls were an antidote to all cases of poisoning. (21) The Chinese and the Arabs considered that seed pearls which were not perforated could be used as a general panancea for problems relating to the eyes.

From the XVIIIth century onwards, pearls were increasingly widely used, even in European medicine. Various experiments were carried out and different authors of the time mention pearls as a useful remedy against madness and epilepsy. Others thought that it was an excellent tonic for the heart and useful in treating melancholia. Francis Bacon was to include it in his group of drugs contributing to a long life.

The use of pearls in medicine may have come from its age-old connections with religion and magic. It had been used as the symbol for generative aquatic energy. Thus, it is hardly surprising that it should later have been adopted as a general tonic and aphrodisiac while also being used in treating madness and melancholia. These two illnesses were believed to arise from the action of the moon and so reacted to an emblem of womanhood and water.

The magical properties and cosmogonic origins of the pearl were already known in India during the Vedic period. Chinese medicine considered it to be appropriate for gynaecological disorders, given its supposed fertile properties.

Its use in treating eye problems and as an antidote to poisoning seems to come from the mythical relation between the pearl and the serpent. An example of this relation has survived at the popular level in China where the dragon (a substitute for the snake) is associated with the pearl, the pearl being seen as a drop of the dragon's saliva. (22) What is more, in many parts of the world people believed that varied precious stones including pearls existed in the heads of snakes and the gullets of dragons. (23) Where medicine and magic meet, the pearl has always played a contradictory role both in the East and the West.

2 - Musk (from Low Latin muscus, probably of Persian origin musk) is a strong-smelling substance obtained from a sac situated under the skin of the abdomen of the male musk deer (Moschus moschiferus).

When musk is fresh it is unctuous, reddish brown with a consistency similar to that of honey. It has a very characteristic, pungent smell. When it is dry, it turns a dark brown and is grainy. The grains can vary between the size of a pin-head and that of a small pea.

The most important commercial varieties' of musk are:

Chinese Musk or Tonkin Musk - dark with a strong smell;

Yun-nan Musk - grainy with a strong smell and very fine;

Assam or Bengal Musk - very viscous with a strong smell;

Russian or Siberian Musk from Tartary -lighter in shade, fibrous with a penetrating smell.

Aetius, an Arab doctor, was the first person to consider the medical properties of musk, believing that it could control spasms, act as a stimulant and promote menstruation.

In old European medical texts, musk was considered suitable for attenuation, desiccation, alexipharmic, cordial and spiritual purposes. It strengthened the heart and the brain, reconstituted lost energy, served as an aphrodisiac and for expelling flatulence. Also, a grain wrapped up in a piece of cotton and placed in the ear was good for treating deafness. (24) It was used in doses of one to four grains.

3 - Amber (from Medieval Latin, ambar from Arabic anbar). This is a resinous aromatic substance which has a wax-like consistency.

Yellow amber has been found in Neolithic and Bronze Age tombs in Denmark, Great Britain, Germany and Italy. The most common shape is like a pearl.

Tacitus recorded that amber came from northern Germany and was used for bartering with the Baltic peoples. This proves that it was used in ancient Europe.

The fossilised amber from the Baltic is hard and resinous, derived from the pine tree Pinus succinifer, L., dating from the Tertiary period. These fossilised trees contain over two thousand species of fossilised insects which are perfectly preserved.

Ambergris is formed in the intestines of the sperm whale (Phyester macrocephalus). (25) It is made of the black matter which cephalopods, on which the sperm whale feeds, secrete. The secretions can weigh from five hundred grams to ten kilos and are much sought after by perfume makers.

Ambergris is a fatty substance which is found floating on the water's surface off the coasts of Madagascar, Japan and Coromandel. It was frequently adulterated due to the high cost of obtaining it.

The most common pharmaceutical application of amber was to make it into aromatic pastilles in which yellow amber or ambergris was the most important ingredient. In medicine it was prescribed for stomach complaints, as an aphrodisiac and as an anti-spasmodic in either powders or as a tincture.

According to the Count of Ficalho in his notes to an edition of the Colóquios by Garcia d'Orta, the latter did not offer a satisfactory explanation of amber in his writings, proving that it was still little known during the XVIth century.

In the Livro dos Pesos, António Nunes mentions the trade of this product and Tomé Pires, in 1516 spoke of drugs traded in Goa, citing the example of the 'alanberees que não há na India' (trans: 'the ambers which do not exist in India') but does not specify to which of the ambers he was referring.

4 and 5 - White and Red Coral are coelentera which secrete calcareous formations which then house polyp colonies. These corals form islands and reefs and are usually red. The rarer corals are white or pink.

Cordial Stone, still preserved by a family in Macau.

In the West, in ancient times, it was thought that coral was an aquatic plant which had grown out of Medusa's head. Because of this, it was believed to have certain mythological properties. It could protect houses and people from lightning, it warded off evil and dried the blood from wounds. It was also thought that coral became redder when it was worn by a man and paler when it was worn by a woman. It has long been used as ornamentation and in some parts of the world it is regarded as a symbol of wealth and prestige, as is the case in China.

In the field of medicine, it has been used by the Chinese for a very long time for preparing household remedies. The Pharmacopea Tubalense also contains a long description of coral and its medicinal applications (26). 5 - Emerald (from the Vulgar Latin smaragda) is a diaphanous, shiny green stone which is as hard as rock crystal. There are two kinds of emerald: oriental and western. 'The Oriental emeralds are harder more beautiful and more highly valued than the Occidental ones and they are brought from the East Indies...'(Pharm Tubalense, p.306). Oriental emeralds were considered to be better for medical purposes although either kind could in fact be used in preparing remedies. The better quality emeralds were preferred, as were those with less blemishes. At that time, unscrupulous merchants sold green glass mixed in with genuine emeralds and apothecaries were warned not to use them prior to testing to see if they were in fact authentic. As late as the XVIIIth century, emeralds were believed to protect against poison, cure epileptic attacks and shorten the time of childbirth. They were 'absorbent' and could 'sweeten gaseous escapes.' They could also check haemorrhages and sweeten bile. They were used in finely ground powders weighing half a scruple to half a dram. The emeralds found in the West are a variety of beryl which appears in granite. Oriental emeralds (hardness 9) are a kind of corundum (A1203) occurring in sedimentary deposits in certain parts of the Orient, particularly in Sri Lanka. Precious stones and minerals were highly esteemed in traditional Oriental medical pratices. Either worn by the patient as an amulet or ground into a powder, they were employed in treating carbuncles and malignant pustules. By the XVIIIth century, emeralds were beleived to absorb poisons as effectively as a cupping glass (C. Semmedo, Polyanthea... 1727). The same source also claims that emeralds could be ground down into a powder and used to treat the Plague. A high-quality oriental emerald worn around the neck was thought to bring luck. Worn around the waist, it could prevent miscarriages. Furthermore, metal mortars and pestles were not to be used for grinding emeralds, other precious stones or corals, as the powder could absorb malevolent qualities from the metal. 7 - Tongues of St. Paul are fawn-coloured stones in the shape of a bird's tongue. The name is derived from the fact that they are found in Malta where, according to tradition, the earth was blessed by St. Paul when he put into harbour there during a storm. There are different sizes of 'tongues' and they were particularly valued in treating malignant fevers as they could calm fevers, relieve anxieties and make the patient sweat. The Pharmacopea Tubalense mentions that they were also very effective against poison (p. 308) and that similar stones could be found on Casomdansu Beach. It is possible that these stones were in fact olivine but as yet I have not been able to confirm this. 8 - Topaz (from the Latin topazus, from the Greek topazos, topazion) is a silicate of aluminium - AlSiO4 (F, OH). It is greenish yellow in tone, transparent with golden and greenish rays shot through it and not so hard as the other precious stones. It is found in veins of quartz and is similar to tourmaline. As is the case of emeralds, there are two kinds of topaz: oriental and western. Oriental topazes were brought to Europe from Arabia and Ethiopia. (27) They occured in the Red Sea region and were heavier, harder, more transparent and brighter than their western counterparts which were found in Bohemia. They were considered to be effective in treating cases of poisoning and melancholy. In the XVIIth century, they were thought to 'sweeten and absorb bitter and acid humours and clear the organs and avoid haemorrhages'. They were finely ground in a porphyry mortar and taken in a dose of half a scruple to half an ounce. 9 - St. Paul's Earth and earths which were used for medicinal purposes date back a long time, perhaps even to prehistoric times. 'Bole' is the name given to earthy clays which were used to absorb infections and poisons. A typical example of this substance was Armenian bole which was a red ochre (the red tint was due to the presence of iron oxide) with a fatty consistency. It was regarded as a tonic and astringent and was sold in the shape of small patties. Leminan bole was a particularly popular medical ingredient in the XVIth century. It is hard and white, and abrasive to the touch. Originally it was found in Malta and for this reason was also known as Terra Sancti Pauli as it was believed to have been blessed by the saint when he took shelter in the harbour after a storm. In ancient Egypt, Lemnian bole was considered an excellent astringent but it was only introduced into Europe at a much later stage where it never gained quite the same popularity. The Pharmacopea Tubalense says that Lemnian bole came from the Island of Lemnos and makes a distinction between it and Melitensis bole from the Island of Malta. The book groups these two varieties under the general heading of 'stamped' earths which were sold in cakes with a seal attesting to its place of origin and thus its genuineness. These earths were believed to be useful in treating cases of poisoning and the Plague as well as other infectious diseases. In the XVIIIth century, they were thought to be useful only for 'bitter humours'. As an example, Curvo Semmedo regarded the red clay from Estremoz as a heart tonic and bezoardic. 10 - Ruby (from the Latin rubeus) is a transparent, blood-red corundum hard enough to resist steel. (28) Those from Ceylon and the East Indies were regarded as the best. Their medical application included them being put into cordials and used for treating poisoning as they could absorb 'bitter humours'. They were also believed to cheer people up and comfort the heart, restoring weak constitutions and preventing further illness. They were prescribed in very fine powders, in doses of half a scruple to half a dram. In the XVIIth century, rubies were also used for magical purposes. 11 - Cannanore Stone, also known as nephrite. Nephrite was commonly imported from Brazil. According to Lemery, it also existed in Spain but the most highly valued variety came from the East Indies. From there it was exported in large blocks. Not a hard stone, it is opaque, green and white and occasionally other colours and has a consistency like that of talc. The greenest, heaviest, greasiest variety is also the easiest to grind and was the preferred variety for XVIth century medical purposes. The powder was white and was obtained by grinding it down and then reducing it to a very fine powder. The Chinese have long regarded nephrite as a stone with a transcendent nature, which is more or less confused with jadeite. Its medical applications included treatment of cholic in the kidneys and use as a diuretic to expel renal 'sands' and waste. Dosages ranged from half a scruple to two scruples. 12 - Jacinth from the Greek hyakinthos, a flower which, according to legend, sprang from the blood of the mythological character Hyacinthus. Jacinth is a gemstone whose name derives from the bluish-purple colour of the hyacinth flower. There are three kinds of jacinth: the oriental jacinth, an orange coloured gem which came from Calicut and Cambaya; Portuguese jacinth which was the same colour as the hyacinth (29) but not as hard as oriental jacinth; and Bohemian jacinth which was bright red. Jacinth is sometimes used to describe a transparent reddish or brown variety of zircon (zircon silicate) which is used as a gemstone. The word is also used as a general term for spinel, garnet and corundum. These stones were very much in vogue during the second half of the XIXth century.

13 - Antler from the species Cervus nippon nippon Temm was the most highly valued variety for the Chinese. However, they were not averse to using the antlers of the Cervus elaphus xanthopygus. The antler mentioned in these recipes could correspond to either of these species or, indeed, to an Indian species. It would appear that the antler concerned was not from the European deer, as the Jesuits were always more interested in making use of local ingredients.

In the XVIIth century, it was accepted by respected doctors, Curvo Semmedo among them, that antler was capable of thinning the blood and improving circulation. (30)

14 - Sapphire is a transparent, shiny blue gemstone with approximately the same hardness as a diamond. Oriental sapphires (31) from Ceylon, Calicut, Pegu and Vijanagar were the most highly valued. There are two main kinds of sapphire: water sapphires, which are white and are similar to diamonds and the blue sapphires, which are the most sought after.

Oriental sapphires, which are heavier, bluer and brighter than other varieties, were thus the preferred variety for use as a medical ingredient.

Sapphires were believed to have many properties and were used to strengthen the heart and other 'noble' parts of the body, to purify the blood and prevent poisoning from infected boils, and to sweeten 'bitter and acid humours'. It was applied in finely ground powders, in doses of half a scruple to half a dram.

15 - Oriental Bezoar Stone is a natural concretion which is found in the alimentary organs of the wild goat which the Persians called padzhar and in Latin was called Capra aegagrus because it was similar to the goat in many respects. This species of nimble-footed goat can be found in the mountains and woods of Iran, India and Malacca. In his treaty on drugs, Pomet published a picture of the animal and a description of it.

16 - Camphor is an oil obtained from various kinds of cinnamon-tree. The most sought after varieties are from China, Taiwan, Japan and Cochin-china.

Camphor is obtained by distilling the whole plant and then subliming it. In medicine it is used as a stimulant at the beginning of the treatment and then as sedative for bronchitis and other complaints.

It is also used as an antispasmodic, anthelmintic and diaphoretic. Camphor oil is used in treating insect bites. When it is mixed with water it is used to wash out the nasal channels and to relieve nasal congestion.

The species Cinnamomum camphora Nees., which grows in Borneo and Sumatra, is regarded as yielding the most authentic, highest quality variety of camphor.

Camphor is sold both in liquid and solid form. It was first used in the Far East by the Chinese and Indians as a medicine, for making fireworks and also for perfuming their gods. The Arabs brought it to Europe where it was also adopted as a medicine and as an ingredient for embalming. During plagues it was used as a disinfectant.

The first camphor to be exported was brought from China where it was available in greater quantities and may therefore have been cheaper. Camphor was only known to exist in Borneo after the Portuguese arrived in the East. Duarte Barbosa described it as 'camphor for eating which is highly regarded amongst the Indians'.

Garcia d'Orta describes 'two kinds of camphor' (CollXII). He also quotes Décio de Amidamo as the first writer to mention 'camphor as one of the ingredients in certain medicinal preparations' as well as discussing the Arab doctor Massudih who regarded camphor as a 'medicinal ingredient' and claimed that it was 'more abundant in years with thunder storms'.

Until the XVIIIth century, the camphor used in Europe was mainly obtained from China and Japan. In the XVIIIth century, camphor from cinnamon-trees in Brazil and São Tome (probably introduced by the Portuguese) came to be used.

17 - Spodium. It is impossible to tell which kind of spodium is being referred to in the recipe from the Dispensary of the College in Macau, as there are three different kinds of spodium. Firstly, there is the kind known to the ancient Greeks which is calamine (zinc carbonate). Secondly, there is the kind used by the Arabs which is believed to have been the pith from a kind of reed called sacarmanbu or, according to other sources, the ashes from the roots of a reed or else dried roses. Lastly, there is the modern variety of spodium which is otherwise known as ivory black, which is prepared by calcining ivory scrap over an open fire until it becomes a light, porous, alkaline material which can easily be ground down into a powder. In the XVIIth century calamine was used for ointments and plasters, dried roses for purgatives and for cordials and other remedies to be taken internally, unfired ivory, as calcinating ivory was believed to cause it to lose its salts and oils.

Modern spodium was regarded as an astringent and alkaline for balancing acids. It was used in treating haemorrhages and gonorrhea and to prevent milk from turning in the stomach. It was prescribed as a very fine powder in doses of half a scruple to two scruples.

It is most probable that the spodium referred to in the recipe was calamine as the recipe already mentioned ivory shavings and there is little likelihood of the same recipe including an ingredient twice over.

18 - Garnet (from the Latin granatum) is a semi-precious red stone, fairly similar to rubies except darker. There are two varieties: oriental and western. Western garnets are of inferior colour, less depth, less brilliance and break more easily.

Garnets are an important group of naturally occuring orthosilicates. The reddest, most transparent and heaviest garnets should be chosen for medical purposes. In the past they were regarded as being able to absorb and sweeten 'acid humours', to fortify the heart and treat palpitations, and to treat poisoning. It was prescribed in very fine powders weighing from half a scruple to two scruples.

19 - Oriental Armenian Bole is a soft type of reddish or occasionally white earth which breaks easily. Its name derives from the fact that it was originally exported from Armenia although now it can be found all over the world. The highest quality was considered to be the red variety which stuck to the tongue indicating that it may have been red or yellow ochre. It was used in exactly the same way as 'stamped earth' in doses ranging from half a scruple to two scruples to block haemorrhages. On examining the recipes, it would seem that there is some repitition of ingredients, but this can probably be explained by the fact that the 'stamped' earth was not red ochre but rather another kind of clay.

20- 'Stamped' Earth is a generic description used for St. Paul's earth and other kinds of clay as has been mentioned above. The clay was exported with a stamp indicating its place of origin.

21 - Rhinoceros Horn Shavings. The horns which were sold for this purpose came from Asia, Africa, Thailand and China.

In XVIIIth century Europe these horns were sold as horns from the unicorn and the description remained in Macau for much longer. Goblets made from these horns were greatly valued as it was believed that water or wine drunk from them would cure a person of poisoning. The larger the horn was, the better it was. They were broken up into long strips, ground down into a powder and used as a sudorific to treat poisoning, weak hearts, fevers and the Plague. The powder was prescribed in doses of half a scruple to half a dram. The rhinoceros horns which are sold in Chinese chemists are one of the most expensive ingredients to be bought there.

22 - Ivory Shavings. These are the scrap shavings from the tusks of the African elephant. For medicinal purposes, the heaviest and whitest sections of the tusk were to be used after being ground down into a powder or boiled. Ivory was used to treat affections of the stomach and was thought to cure abdominal pains, epileptic attacks, fevers, melancholia and other illnesses. It was applied in the form of a cordial.

23 - Crab's-Eyes are hard round calcareous masses of varying size found on the stomach section of the crab's shell. Their name derives from the fact that they are concave on one side and convex on the other and that they are found in pairs. The crabs procured for this substance were freshwater crabs (32) and according to Valentin, a large quantity of these crabs were exported from Brandenburg. Lemery claimed that they came from the East and West Indies and arrived in Europe via Holland. The crabs shed their shells, with the 'eyes', in Spring and Autumn and they can be found scattered on the banks of the rivers. The genuine 'eyes' could be distinguished from fakes by the powder left in the sockets and the increased fragility of the copies. Crab's-eyes were used to balance acidity and were prescribed for heartburn, cholic, fevers, wounds, contusions and haemorrhages. They were taken in finely ground powders weighing between half a scruple and two scruples mixed into cordial drinks.

Indications and Dosages of Cordial Stone

In the Jesuit manuscript where one of the fathers or brothers of the Society recorded the recipes for cordial stone of Goa, there are also directions for their use: Directions and Uses of the Cordial Stones Prepared and First Invented in India by Brother Gaspar António of the Society of Jesus.

The cordial stones, commonly known as Gaspar António's stones, are a mixture of precious stones, amber, musk and other ingredients which the above-mentioned brother mixed together. The manuscript states that it is one of the best cordials as yet discovered by medicine.

The quantity of stone to be taken should weigh from eight to ten grains of wheat although it did not seem to matter if more or less was taken. The stone could be taken at any time, and by anybody.

Memorial de Varios Simplices que da Índia Oriental..., J. Curvo Semmedo - Appendix to the work by the same author entitled Observações Medicas Doutrinais de cem casos gravíssimos... printed for the second time by his son, the Reverend Ignacio Curvo Semmedo, ed. António Pedroso Galram, 1807.

For malignant or burning fevers, when the patient was extremely thirsty, the stone could be taken in two ounces of natural water or water distilled from a cow's tongue, for as well relieving thirst it warms the heart and expels malignant vapours.

It was to be applied in the same way when the fever started to lift and, if the patient was feeling weak, watered-down wine could also be given in order to open the pores and induce sweating. It was effective in breaking all other fevers. If. the patient was suffering from a tertiary fever, the stone was to be mixed with wild chicory water (33), sorrel water (34), or borrage water (35). If the fever was double tertiary fever, the stone was to be administered in thistle water (36) or verbena water (37). In the case of a quartan fever, the stone was to be administered in white wine at the start of the chilling off period.

Cordial stone was believed to work miracles in cases of melancholia. When the attack of melancholia was accompanied by a fever, the stone was to be taken with a cordial water or ordinary water and when there was no fever it could be taken with wine.

For snakebites or bites from any other venom ous creatures, a little stone was to be ground down into a powder and applied to the wound and then dabbed with some wine. If the wound was so small that the powder could not get into it, it was to be scratched until it could. When there was a fear of poisoning, the stone was drunk on the same day, as it was capable of doing as much harm as good if left to the second day. The stone was also considered suitable for arrow wounds and was to be applied in the same way as for snakebites. Other applications of the stone included that of anthelmintic for children in which case it was to be cooked with the roots of grama grass or the seeds from the citron fruit. Also, as a cure for stones, it was to be given in half an ounce of lemon juice and an equal amount of white wine. For diziness, it was to be taken in watered down wine, and for gout, it was applied when the patient felt the first symptoms of pain.

Conclusions

If we compare the two above-mentioned recipes and the indications for their use, we can see that the second version differs from the first only insofar as one ingredient has been omitted, the so-called 'St. Paul's tongues'. This would seem to be because 'Maltese earth' is in fact the same substance, differing only in name.

If we further compare these two recipes with the one for 'Artificial Bezoar Stone from the Dispensary of the College of Macau', we can see that it is very similar to the Cordial Stone of Goa, although it carries more ingredients. In my opinion, from examining the uses to which these stones were put, it would seem that Gaspar António's stones' were based on bezoar stone itself, as this was a widelyused, famous substance in XaVth century Goa.

Brother Gaspar's intention must have been to put together various famous medicinal ingredients and cordials which could be obtained easily (at least by the Jesuits) or at least at lower prices in the markets of Goa than in the West. While his remedy was clearly of European inspiration, it also depended on oriental methods. The stone itself probably operated as much on the basis of its fame as the medical value of its components. This fell in with the general scheme of religious thought in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, a time when medicine played an important role in religion.

It is worth nothing that the tragacanth which is used as a binder for the ingredients in the Pharmacopea Bateana and the Pharmacopea Tubalense does not appear in the original recipe. The reason for this must lie in the very different techniques which were used in the original recipe and which have been kept a secret over the centuries.

Out of the fifteen ingredients included in the mixture, coral as a calcifier and clay as an astringent and absorbant were used up to the XIXth and even the XXth century. They have managed to resist the criticisms of modern Western medical theories.

As for the use of the precious stones, we can see a repetition of corundums of various colours. At the time, they were believed to have different compositions but in fact they only differ in the way they are used and their symbolic value and not in their basic components.

The medical application of these precious stones can be found in the ancient symbolism and magical properties attached to them. This is the same for pearls and antlers.

While in the West Nature provided the motifs for a large variety of symbols, some groups were more widely used than others. Out of the mineral group, precious stones were the most valued as they were a reflection of wealth. It was believed that yellow and green stones could cure jaundice and liver diseases, and that red stones could cure haemorrhages and heavy bleeding, as well as burning fevers.

The fact that the precious stones of ancient myths link them to serpents and show dragons as the guardians of treasures leads on quite easily to their use as medicinal components. By analogy, precious stones were chosen as antidotes to poisoning.

As far as the cordial stone is concerned, however, it seems to have had multiple applications in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries. As an antidote to poison it was applied in much the same way as bezoardic treatments. When used as a tonic and fortifier, it was mixed with a decoction of red roses and acted on the basis of its calcareous components. As an anthelmintic, it depended on the citron seeds or the decoction of grama grass. As for pains caused by stones, my only assumption is that it acted through sympathy.

The upper classes regarded any bezoardic preparation as a strengthener and to a certain extent these remedies were also used to prevent the effects of aging and impotence. In addition to these qualities, the cordial stone was believed to rout out malign airs and fortify the heart. Of all the uses to which this preparation was put to use in former times, it is only the last one cited in the manuscript which has lasted down to this day and age in Macau.

The cordial stone has won against the passage of time by combining any possible medicinal effects with its psycho-therapuetic value. By acting as a heart tonic or tranquillizer, the remedy gave the patient a sense of hope that he would be cured, whether or not it actually had a proven result.

Summary

There is no doubt that one of the most famous remedies to be produced in the Dispensaries of the Jesuit Colleges in the Orient was the cordial stone invented by Brother Gaspar António, who is believed to have prepared it in the College of St. Paul in Goa during the XVIth century.

The Order forbade its members to divulge the recipe. After the expulsion of the Jesuits however, the recipe passed from hand to hand throughout the XVIIIth century.

It was mentioned by several travellers and partially revealed in the hypothetical recipe contained within the Pharmacopea Thubalense (XVIIth century). The true stone, however, conquered time in its place of origin, Goa, and in the city of Macau. Even nowadays, there are Macanese who own this stone and use it as a cordial for cases of shock or to prolong the lives of those on their deathbeds.

Although the original recipe was lost for a long period of time, I managed to find it in a XVIIth century book held in Rome, a microfilm of which was most generously provided for me by Father António Leite, SJ.

This article is the result of a meticulous study of the secret recipe, how it was prepared and how it was used in Macau. Rhomboid in shape, white and coated with gold leaf, it is carefully kept by certain Macanese ladies, guardians of Macanese culture, who regard it not as a valuable possession but rather as a priceless relic.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archivos de Ph. e Sc. Accessorias da India Portugueza, 1864.

Bluteau, Raphael: Vocabulário Portuguez e Latino..., Coimbra, 1712.

Eliade, Mircea: Images et Simboles.... Ed. Gallimard, Paris, 1952.

Farmacopeia Geral para o Reino e Dominios de Portugal.... Lisbon, Imprensa Nacional, 1823.

Freyer, John: A New Account of East India and Persia, London, 1698.

Jeffreys, M. O. W.: "Snake Stones" in Journal of the Royal African Society, vol LXI, Nō 165, 1942.

Maria, Frei José de Jesus: Azia Sinica e Japonica, edited by Charles Boxer, Macau, 1950.

Pharmacopea Bateana... (translated from the Latin into the Portuguese by D. Caetano de S. António), Lisbon, in the Officina Real Deslandesiana, 1713.

Pharmacopêa Portugueza, Lisbon, Imprensa Nacional, 1876.

Pharmacopea Tubalense, Chimico-Galenica by Manuel Rodrigues Coelho, pub. Carlos Silva Correia, Lisboa Occidental, in the printshop of António da Silva, 1735.

Semmedo, João Curvo: Memórial de varios simplices que da Índia Oriental... vem ao nosso Reyno para remedio de muytas doenças..., Lisbon, 1817.

Semmedo, João Curvo: Polyanthea Medicinal..., Lisbon in the printshop of António Pedroza Galram, 1716.

Silva, Pedro José da: História da Pharmacia Portugueza, desde os primeiros séculos da Monarchia até ao presente, Lisbon, 1868.

Soares, José Caetano: Macau e a Assistência, pub. by Agência Geral do Ultramar, Lisbon, 1950.

Manuscripts:

Collecção de varias receitas e segredos particulares..., Rome, 1766 (Jesuit Archives in Rome).

Translated by Marie Imelda MacLeod

NOTES

(1)R. Bluteau: Vocabulário Portuguez e Latino... (Coimbra, 1712), vol II, p. 547.

(2)According to R. Bluteau (ob. cit.), 'bezoardic' was a medical term referring to any medication in which bezoar stone or any other kind of antidote was used in the treatment of poisoning.

(3)'Grain' - an apothecaries' weight roughly equivalent to 0.05g..

(4)The value of these stones was so great that it was not unusual for their owners to encase them in silver or gold.

(5)Cartas Annuas... Jesuítas na Ásia, Biblioteca da Ajuda, Lisbon.

(6)João Curvo Semmedo: Memorial de Vários Simplices que da Índia Oriental... vem ao Nosso Reyno para Remedio de Muytas Doenças... (Lisbon, 1817).

(7)John Freyer: A New Account of East India and Persia (London, 1698), quoted by C. Rivara in Arch. de Ph. e Sc. Accessorias da India Portugueza (1864).

(8)Unfortunately, this is the only reference we have to Brother Gaspar António whose name had been connected with the Cordial Stone of Goa.

(9)Azia Sínica e Japónica (ed. C. R. Boxer) (Macau, 1950), vol II, P. 170;

Arquivos de Macau, vol I, Nō 2, July, 1929, pp. 77-78.

(10)José Caetano Soares: Macau e a Assistência (AGu, Lisbon, 1950), p.179.

(11)Arch. de Ph. e Sc. Accessorias da India Portugueza (1864), quoted by Pedro José da Silva in História da Pharmacia Portugueza, desde os Primeiros Séculos da Monarchia até ao Presente (Lisbon, 1868), p. 127.

(12)Information given to Professor Charles Boxer by J. M. Braga (in Azia Sincia e Japonica, idem, p. 170).

(13)'Collection of various recipes and secret prescriptions from the most important apothecaries' dispensaries of our Society in Portugal, India, Macau and Brazil, prepared and tested by the most famous doctors and pharmacists in these regions...' (Rome, 1766) (Manuscript held by the Jesuit Archives in Rome).

(14)Manoel Rodrigues Coelho: Pharmacopea Tubalense Chimico-Galenica - Parte Primeira... (pub. by Carlos da Silva Correia, Lisbon, 1735), pp. 130-311.

(15)Pharmacopea Bateana... traduzido do Latim em Portuguez... by D. Caetano de S. António, (Lisbon, 1713), p. 133.

(16)'Bugloss' (Anchusa Officinalis) - a medicinal herb which was very much in vogue at the time.

(17)A 'scruple' was a unit of apothecaries' weight equal to twenty grains.

(18)Mircea Eliade: Images et Symboles. Essais sur le Symbolisme Magico-Religieux (pub. Gallimard, Paris, 1952), p. 190).

(19)Mircea Eliade: ob. cit., quoting Kunz and Stevenson: The Book of the Pearl, p. 20, and Jackson: Shells as Evidence of the Migration of Early Culture, p. 92.

(20)R. Garbe: Die Indische Mineralien (Leipzig, 1882), p. 74. quoted by Mircea Eliade, ob. cit., p. 191.

(21)Harschacarita, translated by Cowell and Thomas, p. 251 and on, quoted by Mircea Eliade, ob. cit., p. 191.

(22)According to Taoist thought, this pearl is a talisman which will fulfill the wishes of anyone who finds it.

(23)M. O. W. Jeffreys: "Snake Stones" in Journal of the Royal African Society, vol. LXI, Nō 165,1942.

(24)R. Bluteau: ob. cit., vol I.

(25)In Garcia d'Orta: Colóquios dos Simples e Drogas da Índia (1563) and mentioned by the Count of Ficalho (1891) it has been said that ambergris originates in the cornea of the cuttlefish and other cephalopods eaten by the sperm whale, producing an amber paste. Garcia d'Orta spoke of birds' beaks being found in the amber paste, confusing these with the beaks found in excrement which was eaten by the whales and supposedly produced amber.

(26)Pharmacopea Tubalense, idem, pp. 230-231.

(27)The oriental topaz is a yellow corundum (hardness 9), Aluminium Oxide. False topaz is really citrine and can be distinguished by its hardness (hardness 7).

(28)The oriental ruby is harder and only the diamond can make an impression on its surface.

(29)The plant known as water hyacinth has light lilac blue flowers which grow darker over time.

(30)João Curvo Semmedo: Polyanthea Medicinal Notícias Galenicas e Chymicas... (Lisbon, 1716), Treaty Nō2 Chapter 106, Nō8, p. 582.

(31)This is a blue corundum, Aluminium Oxide. Broadly speaking, all the corundums can be used as gemstones. The most famous mines are in India (Madrasta, Malabar) and Thailand.

(32)The crabs most frequently sought after for crab's-eyes were those of the Portunideos genus.

(33)Cichorium intybus.

(34)Garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa) is used in medicine as a refresher and diuretic (Curvo Semmedo: Polyanthea..., p. 666).

(35)Borage (Borago officinalis) - Curvo Semmedo claimed that borage would 'ease the chamber and relieve melancholics' (Polyanthea.... p.666).

(36)Blessed thistle (Cnicus benedictus).

(37)Balm-mint (Melissa officinalis).

* Lecturer in the Faculty of Social Sciences in the Universidade Nova, Lisbon. Anthropologist, researcher and author of several books concerning Macau's ethnology.

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