Literature

WU YUSHAN'S POEMS OF MACAO

Zhang Wenqin*·

Upon converting to Catholicism, Wu Yushan· (°1631-†1718), an old adherent of the Ming dynasty and a famous early Qing dynasty painter, followed the European missionary, Philippe Couplet, to Macao. While there, he studied theology at St. Paul's College, joined the Society of Jesus and wrote a number of poems. After returning to China, and becoming a Catholic priest, he worked in the south of the country for thirteen years. As a literary figure, Wu Yushan deserves special mention both with regards to the history of Sino-European cultural exchange and the cultural history of Macao. However, he received little attention during the Qing dynasty, his achievements as a poet being overshadowed by his fame as a painter and man of religion.

For nearly sixty years, well-established Chinese scholars, such as Chen Heng, · Fang Hao· (after 1950), Wang Zongyan· (1971), Zhu Jieqi·, to name but a few, have made a systematic study of Wu Yushan's work. This paper is an attempt, on the basis of their valuable research, to explore the contents, artistic features, as well as academic value of Wu Yushan's Macao poems.

The collection of poems that Wu Yushan created in Macao, Sanba ji· (Collection of Poems about St. Paul's), includes Qianzhi· (Prelude-Poem) from Ao zhong zayong·È (Miscellaneous Poems of a Settlement by the Sea), consisting of thirty qijue· (four-line, twenty eight-character poems), and Houzhi· (Epilogue), consisting of eighty-two religious verses. Generally speaking, the majority of religious poems were created in praise of holy figures and for the purpose of spreading the Gospel. Seldom did such poems touch on Macao itself, or reveal the poet's feelings. 1 This, however, is not the case with Wu Yushan, who, in Ao zhong zayong, not only describes Macao, but also reflects upon his feelings. For this reason, I have chosen to discuss the various poems included in Ao zhong zayong here.

Ao zhong zayong covers the works that Wu wrote from the time he arrived in Macao with Philippe Couplet in late Kangxi reign, year nineteen [KX 19 = 1680] until his departure in Kangxi reign, year twenty one [KX 21 = 1682]. This work was incorrectly reproduced on several occasions until 1967, when Prof. Fang Hao gained access to Wu Yushan's manuscript of Mojing Daoren shigao· (The Poem of Mojing Daoren) and had them corrected after referring to Li Di's· blockprinted edition. 3

Ao zhong zayong 1 [i. e., poem no1] goes like this:

“关头阅尽下平沙,

蒙境山形可类花,

居客不惊非误入,

远从学道到三巴。”

("Crossing the border we come to Pingsha, · Haojing· [Macao] is as beautiful as flowers. Giving great pleasures to visitors from afar, Who come all the way here to study at St. Paul' Temple."). 4(1)

Here the poet describes how they crossed the border and walked on the soft sandy path in Macao. After climbing over Lianfeng· (Lotus Peak) [i. e., Mount Fort] (Port.: Fortaleza do Monte), they came to St. Paul's [College] (Port.: Colégio de São Paulo), where they undertook theological studies. St. Paul's was, at that time, a very active Catholic centre in the Orient as well as the Jesuits' principal church [in Macao]. Since Kangxi reign, year ten [KX 10 = 1671], when the Qing dynasty government had reopened its doors to western missionaries, there had been a great influx of Jesuits into China, particularly of those with a good knowledge of astronomy. They were dispatched from St. Paul's, either to serve the Qing dynasty imperial court, or to preach in various parts of China. Jesuits studying at St. Paul's were described as "[...] elegantly dressed. [They] never stopped reciting and chanting. [And] as soon as they entered the hall, they started reading and discussing morals and doctrines [...]."5

It would seem that, at that time, the streets of Macao 'swarmed' with 'monks' from St. Paul's "miao"· ("Temple"). As Monk Ji Shan, · a Ming dynasty contemporary, claims, "The people you met at the crossroads were all from St. Paul's Temple. [...] Do not say that these were dreary times; just look at those enthusiastic crowds going to Church."6

Wu Yushan, who was also known under the pseudonyms of Li· and Mojing Daoren, · was born in Changshou,· Jiangsu· province. Baptized as a child, he grew up mixing with monks and religious people. His interest turned to Catholicism when he was in his mid-forties, but he was approaching fifty when he finally came to Macao and took up residence on the second floor of St. Paul's College. Poems nos 17, 19, 25, 26 and 28 of Ao zhong zayong all describe the poet's life at St. Paul's College. At that time, the College offered courses in, amongst other subjects, Theology, Philosophy, and Natural Sciences and its students were mostly young Catholic followers or missionaries. Ao zhong zayong 25 begins with these two lines:

“性学难逢海外师。

远来从者尽儿童。

[...]."

("What a rare opportunity to have teachers from overseas,

And those studying here are all youngsters from afar. [...]."). (2)

Obviously, it would not have been easy for Wu Yushan, given his age, to digest and absorb these formidable western classics and doctrines, so different from the traditional Chinese learnings that he was familiar with, as Ao zhong zayong 26 makes clear:

“灯前乡语各西东,

未解还教笔可通。

我写蝇头君写爪,

横看直观更难穷。”

("I speak my Eastern tongue, and you your Western tongue.

We try writing, if we cannot communicate just by speaking.

My writing looks like the heads of flies, while yours resembles claws.

My brush dashes vertically, but your feather flows horizontally."). (3)

As Wu was used to writing Chinese ideograms vertically, it is not difficult to imagine the difficulty he would have experienced in trying to write Latin, the words of which looked like 'claws'! According to poem no 25, daily life at St. Paul's College was monotonous, with the brass bell ringing at the hours of "mao"· and "you "· (6:00 and 7:00 a. m. and p. m.) for classes.

“[...]

何当日课分卯酉。

静听摇铃读二”

("[...]

Twice a day at mao and you classes start, On hearing the bell we set to, working hard."). (4)

They were clearly subjected to hard work under candlelight deep into the night. As Ao zhong zayong 19 notes, instead of the crowing of the cock, they heard the chiming of the clock:

“[...]

灯前此地非书馆,

但听钟声不听鸡。”

("[...]

How do you know this is not the study-room? Well, you hear the chiming, not the crowing."). (5)

The church bells were important for the whole of Macao, their chiming regulating the time throughout the city. Ao zhong zayong 20 reads:

“[...]

前山后岭一声钟,

醒却道人闲梦断。”

("[...]

The chiming rose from behind the hill, Cutting short the monks' idle dreams."). (6)

All day long, the poet heard not only the ringing of the brass bell, and the chiming of the clock, but also the splashing of waves outside Shizimen· (Cross Gate). Ao zhong zayong 17 states:

“第二层楼三面听,

无风海浪似雷霆。

[...]."

("From the second floor I hear Waves battering thunderously. [...]."). (7)

As shown in poem no 28, Wu felt great pressure to work as hard as possible:

“老去谁能补壮时?

工夫日用恐迟迟。

思将旧习先焚砚,

且断涂鸦并废诗。”

("Can I catch up with the missed lessons I have misses at my age?

Time is running out for me, I am afraid. I will have to throw my treasured yan· into the fire,

And stop painting and writing poetry."). (8)

Determined to give up his “preoccupation” and concentrate on his theological studies at St. Paul's, Wu burned his most cherished painting paraphernalia and gave up reciting Chinese poetry. Yet, determined as he was, he never really stopped painting and writing poems, as we can see in Ao zhong zayong 23:

“经过庾岭无梅树,

半截幽怀托笔端。

昨写今将寄陇客,

暗窗且复展来看。”

("There are no plum blossoms over Yu Ling, Let my magic brush do the painting. I will send it to my dear friend up in Long, Imagine how delighted he will be to see it."). (9)

The poet, residing on the southern tip of China in the heat of the summer, painted a picture of plum blossoms braving the wintry snow in northern China and sent it to his closest friend, far away. Of course, had Wu Yushan really given up 'writing poetry', the world would have been denied the Sanba ji!

The poet never forgot his loved ones either. Poem no 24 states:

“每叹秋风别钓矶,

两儿如燕各飞飞,

料应此际俱相忆,

江浙鲈鱼先后肥。”

("I remember saying good-bye in the autumn breeze,

My sons have flown away like full-grown swallows.

Father and sons can't help missing one another,

Like perch growing big in Jiangsu· and Zhejiang."·). (10)

The poet had said good-bye to his two sons on a fishing float in the autumn of Kangxi reign, year nineteen [KX 19 = 1680], since which time they had grown-up and built their own lives, one in Jiangsu and the other in Zhejiang. As the autumn wind rose once again, the poet was reminded of the parting scene, and wished that he could follow Zhang Han's example and return home at once to see his sons.

His thoughts then move from his sons to his late wife, who had suffered greatly bringing up their children. Poem no 3 of Ao zhong yougan· (Reflections on Macao) says:

“牛衣卧听小儿啼,

未得无情亦自迷,

天地由来终寂莫,

沾巾何事为亡妻。

("In rags we listened to our first born child crying,

In poverty we prayed for mercy.

In heaven and on earth there is loneliness,

In tears I find myself moaning over my dead wife.").

Wu Yushan was born into a poor family. He studied hard and eventually became a famous painter, supporting his mother by selling his paintings. After he married, he continued to live a poverty-stricken existence. Like Wang Zhang· of the Western Han· dynasty (206BC-AD9), who, in sheer destitution, wept over his newborn child in "niu yi" ("rags"), Wu Yushan, hungry and cold, choked on his sobs as his first son was born in the depth of the night. His sons were now grown up and his wife, who had had such a hard life struggling to bring them up, had long since passed away. How could the poet hold back his tears? The deep memories he cherished for his beloved wife can also be found in the second poem of Du sheng yuese· (Studying at St. Joseph 's 2):

“茹苦勤劳三十年,

家寒担荷谢无愆。

净配瞻依慰自信,

慈君呵护宠难来。”

("So patiently you toiled for thirty long years, Silently bearing adversities and burden. Selflessly you gave us courage and solace, Which I accepted with wordless gratitude.").

This poem, rather than eulogising St. Joseph's College, was written in memory of his beloved wife. Here we see a typical Chinese woman, imbued with the traditional virtues of diligence and endurance, respectful of the elderly and loving to the young, quietly bearing hardship in support of her husband. Although the poet's feelings were natural and within the accepted code of human conduct, a Jesuit must commit himself to obeying the 'Three Nevers' before joining the Society of Jesus (i. e., Never indulge in personal desires; never indulge in wealth and power; and never indulge in sex). All priests from the Society of Jesus must remain single and obey their superiors. Though Wu Yushan never indulged himself through amassing wealth, and though he remained single for the rest of his life, he could not help missing his late wife, a seeming 'flaw' in his religious personality. So, more than two hundred years later, when Li Di· published the block-printed edition of Wu Yushan's work, he deliberately left out these two poems. 8

However painfully he felt the loss of his beloved wife, Wu Yushan's thoughts by this time were utterly dominated by his Catholic faith, as evidenced by the fact that the overwhelming majority of the poems in Sanba ji are religious. Wu held such an admiration for Fr. Francis Xavier, who died at Shangchuan Dao· [Port.: Sanchoão] off the coast of Guandong province on the 3rd December 1552, that he chose Simão Xavier da Cunha as his Catholic name. In Sha Wenlue Zan· (In Praise of Francis Xavier), he describes this missionary saint thus:

“非止本会之栋梁,

实乃亚细亚之慈父。

[...]."

("Not only is he the pillar of the Society of Jesus,

But also, indeed, the kindly Father of Asia. [...].").

And in Yong Sha Wenlue· (In Homage of Francis Xavier), he writes:

“圣会光埋利数中,

可怜前圣创基功。

三洲旧穴今犹在,

望里悲天午夜风。

("Holy lights brighten up the earth, We pay tribute to our Founding Father. Still existing in Sanzhou are the holy shines, We think of him with nostalgia on stormy night.").

In Ao zhong zayong 4, he even describes a procession in which the worshippers are carrying Francis Xavier's statue. (11)

Ao zhong zayong also gives expression to the fond memories he cherished for his Jesuit teachers and classmates. The Belgian missionary, Philippe Couplet, who left Macao for Rome on the 5th December 1681, was his teacher of Astronomy. Wu Yushan stayed on in Macao, but he expressed his deep feelings for his teacher in Ao zhong zayong 10:

“风舶奔流日夜狂,

谁能稳卧梦家乡?

计程前度太西去,

今日应过赤道旁。”

("The ship sails the stormy seas day and night, Can anyone sleep peacefully dreaming of home?

My beloved teacher is returning to the West, He should be passing the Equator now."). (12)

His warm concern for a certain Father Luo· [Baltasar da Rocha, S. J.,?], another missionary who had returned to Europe before Couplet's departure, is expressed in Ao zhong zayong 16:

“虹见来潮狂飓起,

吞舟鱼势叉纵横。

不知几万风涛去,

归向何人说生死?

("Up go surging tides and waves, Threatening to swallow the ships. I pray to millions of roaring waves, Who tell the life and death of one I hold so dear?"). (13)

In the days of wooden sailing ships, the poet knew only too well what a risky journey it was between Macao and Europe. Passing from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and then into the Atlantic Ocean, it involved crossing thousands of miles of treacherous stormy seas. The poet prayed fervently for the safe passage home of his teachers and friends.

In the poems of Ao zhong zayong, great emphasis is placed on describing the life-styles and customs of Macao. The poet first concentrates on what the people of Macao, both the Chinese and the Europeans, did for a living: "Macao covers an area of about five or six li, · and the land here is poor. The inhabitants are not great farmers. They live on seafaring and trade." Ao zhong zayong 2 states:

“一曲楼台五里沙,

乡音几处客为家。

海鸠独拙催农事,

抛却壕田隔浪斜。”

("Stepping through a gate, you find five li sandy land.

People speaking different accents live different ways.

No one but the guillemot cares about tilling the land,

While men desert the fields but ride upon the waves."). (14)

Here we can see that neither the Chinese nor the Portuguese in Macao were farmers. They depended for their existence on maritime trade.

However, foreign trade in Macao went into decline during the late Ming dynasty, and, in the 'Period of Prohibition' at the beginning of the Qing dynasty, during which the maritime trade route and trade with the inland cities and provinces was outlawed, the only form of trade that continued to exist was small-scale smuggling. In Kangxi reign, year seventeen [KX 17 = 1678], the king of Portugal, Dom Afonso VI [°1643-r.1656-†1683], sent an envoy, Pinto Pereira, to negotiate with the Qing Government on the issue of establishing normal trade relations with China. As a result, in 1860, the Chinese government opened a land trade route between Xiangshan· and Macau. Ao zhong zayong 18 describes the business dealings that could be seen along this route:

“小西船到客先闻,

就买胡椒闹闹腾。

十日纵横拥沙路,

担夫黑白一群群。”

("Traders first heard the ships from Xiaoxi· arriving,

There rose noises shouting pepper and spices. For ten days pedlars and traders, black and white,

Pushed their way through crowds selling and buying."). (15)

In Kangxi reign, year twenty three [KX 23 = 1684], prior to the opening of the Guangzhou customs office, the zongdu· (Viceroy) of Liangguang· (Guangdong and Guangxi) provinces, Wu Xingzuo,· wrote in a similar vein while on an inspection tour of Macao:

"[...]

岭外云深抹翠微,

翠微村外落花飞。

负贩纷纷多估客,

辛苦言从澳里归。

[...]."

("[...]

Beyond lush hills and under heavy clouds, Nestles Cuiwei· amidst falling flowers. Traders swarming along the paths keep talking,

About their tiring business trips from Macao. [...].)9

Both poems recount the hustle and bustle of Chinese traders selling their goods along the trade routes. It should however be pointed out that the two poets are referring to two different trading points. While Wu Yushan describes the sandy paths leading to the Border Gate of Macao, Wu Xingzuo's poem focuses on Cuiweicun· (Cuiwei Village), a hamlet situated between Qianshan· and Xiangshan. Both poems are valuable references for the study of this historical period.

In his poem, Wu Yushan mentions the "[...] ships from Xiaoxi [...]" and the goods they brought to trade. "Xiaoxi" (lit.: "small pacific") actually refers to the Portuguese colony of Goa, on the Malabar Coast of India, a base for Portuguese commercial trading. The Portuguese ships rode the north-easterly wind in winter and returned on the south-westerly wind in summer. Ao zhong zayong 8 refers to the young wives of the Portuguese sailors who longed for their husbands' safe return:

“少妇凝妆锦覆披,

那知虚晷画长眉。

夫因重利常为客,

每见潮生动别离。”

("The young woman, so dressed up in rich brocade,

Wonders who to please with a coiffure and matching brows.

Her man, so often away from home on business voyages,

Who can never resist the temptations of the profitable waves."). (16)

The "[...] young woman [...]" in the poem is not the wife of a Chinese businessman with beautiful hair and eyebrows, but the wife of a Portuguese merchant, dressed in "[...] rich brocade [...]" and wearing a silk scarf. Like the sad and lonely young Chinese woman often left alone at home by her profit-seeking husband in ancient times, the "[...] young [Portuguese] woman [...]" is worried about her husband far away from home on a business voyage and pining for his safe return. 10

The "danjia"· ("boat people" or "seafarers"), cruising the waters of Macao, also caught the poet's attention. In Ao zhong zayong 5 the poet writes:

“海气阴阴易晚天,

渔舟相并起炊烟。

雁飞地远知难到,

岛月来宵十二圆。”

("Evenings find fishing-junks berthing, In twos and threes, and then rises the smoke of cooking.

All the year round they drift about on the sea, fishing,

And only return to land for the reunion in the twelfth moon."). (17)

Sometimes these boat people moored alongside the quay, hanging their fishing-nets on the trees. As described in Ao zhong zayong 7, in small groups, they went on a "[...] spending spree", returning with bottles of spirits and wine:

“晚堤收网树头腥,

蛮蛋群沽酒满瓶。

[...]."

("The sunset finds us pulling up the nets and hanging them on trees,

Then in hordes we rough boat drunkards go on a spending spree. [...]."). (18)

For Catholics, Lent, the forty-day period between Shrove Sunday and Easter Sunday, is a period of fasting. During this period, popularly called the 'four-times-ten-day fast', which leads to Jesus' crucifixion on Holy Thursday [three days before Easter Sunday], Catholics are prohibited from eating any living animal except fish and seafood. These boat dwellers, therefore, berthed their junks alongside the little cabins of the "Black people [...]" (the African slaves or servants of the missionaries and the Portuguese) to sell them their fish. This is described in Ao zhong zayong 3:

“黄沙白屋黑人居,

杨柳当门秋不疏。

夜半蛋船来舶此,

斋厨午饭有鲜鱼。”

("Black people dwell in white cabins on yellow sand,

In autumn breeze willows and poplars look grand.

At nightfall Dan· people arrive and cast anchor,

Bringing with them luscious fish for the fasting kitchen."). 11(19)

Macao at that time was China's only point of contact with the West. As a result, the Portuguese,their customs and rituals, interests and religious festivals, also became the subject of the poet's interest.

In Ao zhong zayong 9, the poet describes spring birds singing under a lush and shady Banyan tree and conjures the image of busy eating houses bustling with customers and hearty laughter nestling amidst green trees.

"[...]

来人饮各言乡事,

礼数还同只免冠。”

("[...] Eaters and drinkers speak their own tongues about their own matters,

Sharing similar etiquette and courtesy except for the lifting of the hats."). (20)

Here the poet notices the differences of etiquette between the Chinese and the Europeans. It seems that the Chinese and Portuguese who frequented the eating houses displayed more or less the same habits, but whereas the Chinese when meeting guests took great care to be well dressed, the Portuguese showed their manners by raising their hats.

Another source of inspiration to the poet was Francis Xavier, regarded by many as a saint. His statue stands on the façade of St. Paul's and he is celebrated in one of Macao's most important religious festivals, in which statues in his image are paraded by worshippers. Reference to this event is made in Ao zhong zayong 4:

“捧腊高烧迎圣来。

旗幢风满炮成雷。

四街铺草青如锦,

未许游人踏作埃。”

("With incense burning, they welcome the Saint,

Amidst banners flying and crackers thundering.

Jubilant paraders are swarming,

Through streets covered with flowers and grass."). (21)

This scene of religious rejoicing is in interesting contrast to the Yingshen saihui· (Welcoming God's Race), a festival held by Chinese communities in the hinterland.

Christmas, of course, is the most important festival of the year for the Portuguese. In Ao zhong zayong 27, the poet describes the Christmas decorations, revealing how they contrast with those of the Chinese New Year Festival:

“百千灯耀小林崖,

锦作云峦蜡作花。

妆点冬山齐庆赏,

黑人舞足应琵琶。”

("Thousands of lamps brighten up the little wood,

Silken clouds hang over waxen flowers.

Overjoyed at the winter hill beautifully dressed up,

The black men start dancing in echo to pipa."). (22)

The "[...] winter hill [...]" is beautifully decorated with illuminated trees and silver flowers. The air is full of the festive mood. The hard working "[...] black men [...]" are enjoying their hard-earned holidays and inspired to dance by the pleasant music of "pipa" [a plucked string instrument]. This is perhaps the earliest Chinese poem describing Christmas as Western people celebrate it.

The sight of several Portuguese sitting in "[...] sedan chairs [...]", while admiring a flower show in winter, also aroused the poet's interest. In Ao zhong zayong 11 he writes:

“腊候山花烂漫开,

网罗兜子一肩来。

卧看欲问名谁识,

开落春风总不催。”

("Flowers are in full bloom in the Twelveth Moon,

Soft sedan chairs are on shoulders.

Half-sitting, half-lying, he or she asks about the flowers.

Well, just feast your eyes on them in the spring breeze."). (23)

Wealthy Portuguese in Macao used to travel in comfortable "[...] sedan chairs [...]" (the ones for the ladies were enclosed, with one window on either side), carried by their black slaves.

As a distinguished painter, Wu Yushan was a keen observer of the Macao landscape and how it changed with the seasons. Coming from Zhejiang· and Jiangsu, · where the four seasons are distinct, the poet immediately felt attracted to this part of Lingnan,· where it is spring all year round. He says: "There is neither frost nor snow on Macao's trees. Seldom do you see withered leaves or dead branches. Flowers are in full bloom in the depth of winter. How miraculous!"12 In Ao zhong zayong 14, the poet marvels at the exotic scenes and sights, which are so different from the provinces south of the Yangzi· River:

“九月无霜黄橘柚,

三冬有雨熟枇杷。

[...]."

("The Ninth Moon sees tangerines and grape fruits grow gold,

While the deep winter rains hasten the loquats to ripen. [...]."). (24)

And in Ao zhong zayong 21 he writes:

“九九不飞宜瑞雪,

常如梅候润衣衫。

[...]."

("In the depth of winter there is no fall of snow,

As always the rain dampens your clothes. [...].")(25)

The evergreens, the flowers in constant bloom, the delicious fruits abundant all year round, the continual showers like the never-ending drizzle of Zhejiang and Jiangsu in the rainy season, all aroused Wu Yushan's poetic sentiment and imagination.

Like all accomplished landscape painters, who, without exception, are addicted to beautiful views and scenery, Wu Yushan could not give up his passion for nature, just as he could not give up painting and poetry, after he came to Macao. As mentioned in Ao Zhong zayong 6, the poet enjoyed climbing up to Mont Fort when the sky cleared after a heavy downpour:

短毳衣衫革屐径,

炮台山上踏新晴。

[...]."

("Gently and brightly I strolled on the springy grass,

In short robes and straw sandals I drank the fresh air. [...]."). (26)

In Ao zhong zayong 12, the poet describes how he took a break during a visit to Green Island (Port.: Ilha Verde):

“一髪青洲斷海中,

四圍蒼翠有涼風,

昨過休沐歸來晚,

夜渡波濤似火紅。”

("What a piece of green jade across the sea, With rich green trees and cool caressing air. Yesterday I lingered a bit longer on the island,

When I returned the waves went crimson like fire."). (27)

The poet then turns his attention to the "Shizimen"· ("Cross Gate") [Ao zhong zayong 15](28) overlooking the sea. He finds it hard to tear himself away from this fascinating view. He lingers on and on, opposite the Jiuzhou· group of islands, until the last rays of the sun disappear on the horizon. He becomes so intoxicated that he claims that this is actually the Jiuzhou described in the poems of the famous Tang dynasty poet, Li Shangyin. · (In fact, the "Jiuzhou" written about by Li Shangyin (alias Li Yishan)· refers to an imaginary and secret place in the soul of Yang Yuhuan·, the favourite concubine of the Tang· dynasty (618-906) Emperor Tang Xuanzong. · This Emperor was so heartbroken after Yang's death that he ordered that Jiuzhou, her soul's hiding place, be found. The poet, of course, knew this, making use of the ancient literary allusion to vent his feelings of nostalgia).

Wu Yushan also took a boat and sailed many miles southwest of Macao to Sanzaoshan,· another nostalgic scene reminiscent of past glories, which he shortened to "Sanshan "· in Ao zhong zayong l3:

“浪绕三山药草香,

如何误得几君王?

秦时采剩今犹绿,

药自长生人自亡”

("Washed by waves Sanshan has the sweet smell of herbs,

How could the Emperors have ever missed them?

Those left over since the Qin dynasty are still thriving,

Man's life is short, but medicinal herbs are everlasting"). (29)

Here the poet criticises a number of Emperors, who, since the Qin· (221-206BC) and Han· (206BC-AD220) dynasties, had dreamed of eternal existence, pinning their hopes on a concoction of herbs. He finishes his poem on a religious note.

Alone, the poet walked up Guia Hill near the Border Gate. From the top of this hill, gazing into the eastern horizon, he described what he saw in Ao zhong zaoyang 22:

“乱山高处独幽寻,

屐底泥腥畏虎深。

何事云遮关下路,

来看恐起忆归心。”

("Alone, amid the wild waste of jungles, His muddy sandals trudged along the tigers' tail.

Curious to know what lay under the dark clouds,

He would never return until he had found out."). (30)

This poem tells us a lot about the poet. In order to find out what the trail from the Border Gate to the top of Guia Hill was really like when all was hidden by "[...] dark clouds [...]", he was prepared to defy the muddy tiger trail. After all, didn't the poet defy all difficulties in pursuing his literary and religious goals?

Having discussed the content of Wu Yushan's Macao poetry, let us examine their artistic features and literary value.

Professor Zhu Jieqin·, commenting on the style of Wu Yushan's poems, said, "They developed from the tradition of Tao Yuanming· and Xie Kangle.· All are gifted. Their landscapes are superb, simply superb."13 As Tao Yuanming and Xie Kangle, Wu Yushan described nature and expressed himself through his landscapes.

I think two points need mentioning here, however. Firstly, though Wu Yushan is better known for his paintings, he was as equally accomplished a poet. There is both the poet and artist in him: there is poetry in his paintings and there is painting in his poems. Indeed, his poems on the life-style and customs, rituals and religious festivals of the Portuguese people in Macao, and on the changing landscapes and sights of the city itself, are not merely beautiful written creations but also conjure beautiful lifelike imagery. Wu Yushan learned a great deal from the ancient masters, yet he did not simply imitate them. He developed a style of his own that stemmed from his relationship with nature and life in general.

Secondly, Wu Yushan's poems are both ethereal and earthly. Whilst reading his poems, one learns a lot about life and this world, rediscovering a historical value that is hard to find in the works of other poets dedicated to the descriptions of leisurely life and landscapes.

As a faithful favourite of the Ming dynasty, Wu felt strongly that "[...] the country was lost, though the mountains and rivers remain [...]". This opinion he revealed in his early poems, such as Du Xitai tongkuji· (After Reading Heartrending Tears over Xitai):

“十年萍迹总无端,

恸哭西台泪未干。

到处荒凉新第宅,

几人惆怅旧衣冠。”

("For ten years I have been wandering the land alone,

Heart-broken, over Xitai,· tears never run dry.

Wherever I go I see wilderness and pathos, Many a lonely hanger-on languishes in the past."). 14

Xitai tongkuji (Heart-rending Tears over Xitai) is a well-known essay written by Xie Ao,· an ardent supporter of the Nanhai· (Southern Song) dynasty (1127-1279). In this essay Xie pours out his utter distress at the fall of the Song dynasty, to which he remained faithful to his last day. So it is not difficult to imagine how Wu Yushan, as a devotee of the Ming· dynasty (1369-1644), felt about the change of dynasties and about his own life when he was reading this heart-rending essay.

Though Wu Yushan's Macao poetry is not as overtly political as Xie Ao's, it still informs readers of contemporary issues of the time and of the poet's own life. He stood aloof from the Qing dynasty administration, preferring to live a simple life in spite of his fame as a well-established painter. His paintings were considered valuable religious imagery at that time. 15 As Ao zhong yougan shows, he was in "niu yi" ("rags") when his first son was born. Even when his two sons grew up, the poverty was such that they were forced to separate in order that each could make a living. From this, we learn of the suffering to which followers of the Ming dynasty were subjected during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912). And we admire Wu Yushan more because he remained faithful and upright even in poverty and adversity.

Wu Yushan distinguished himself from other Ming dynasty followers. Not only did he observe the traditional Confucian code of ethics, but he also adhered to the universal laws of the Catholic Church. His collections of poems were named after St. Paul's College and Church, and Ao zhong zayong, in particular, contains many poems which describe the life followed by the missionaries who lived there. He followed in the footsteps of Xu Guangqi· and Li Zhizao· of the Ming dynasty, searching for truth and faith beyond the parameters of Confucius. Wu Yushan's conversion to Catholicism and the taking of monastic vows by other Ming dynasty followers were both a demonstration of resistance to the Qing dynasty rulers. Wu Yushan's conversion to Catholicism, however, was the culminating moment of years of assiduous and indefatigable pursuit of religious faith and a lifetime of religious practice.

And it was in Macao that Wu Yushan devoted himself to religion. Macao, at that time, was China's only point of contact with the Western world. Wu Yushan turned his attention to the things he observed about the West (how the Portuguese people in Macao dressed and conducted themselves, how they celebrated their festivals, what they did for a living, what hobbies and interests they pursued), thus leaving behind a number of beautiful Western-style paintings. That Wu adopted the shih· form of classical Chinese poetry to describe what he observed, is a vivid reflection of Sino-Western cultural interchange of the time.

In view of its content, artistic characteristics and academic value, Wu Yushan's Macao poetry is a priceless asset in the history of Sino-Portuguese cultural exchange, as well as the cultural history of Macao.

Although merely a preliminary study, it is hoped that this essay will be a springboard for further research into this 'literary treasure' of the Qing Dynasty.

Translated from the Chinese by: Ieong Sao Leng, Sylvia 杨秀玲 Yang Xiuling.

HO SANG WONG 黄豪生 Historical Heritage VI. Photograph 1998.

* BA in History from the University of Zhongshan, where he presently is Associate Professor. Member of the Association of Chinese History of the Pacific Area, and of the Association of History of Guangdong. Author of Notes and Commentaries on Poems about Macao and Documentation on the History and Culture of Macao. Editor of the following publications in Chinese: William C. Hunter, The Fan Kwae at Canton: 1825-1844, Taipei, Ch'eng wen, 1965; Bits of Old China, Taipei, Ch'eng wen, 1965; Anders Ljungstedt, An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settlements in China and of the Roman Catholic Church and Mission in China & Description of the City of Canton, Boston, James Monroe & Co., 1836 [1st edition]; and Hosea Ballou Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company trading to China: 1635-1834, Taipei, Ch'eng wen,1966.

NOTES

1 In Kangxi reign, year fifty eight [KX 58 = 1719], Wu Yushan's student, Lu Daohuai,· deleted the religious verses from Sanba ji «三巴集» (Collection of Poems about St. Paul's), keeping only Ao zhong zayong «岙中杂咏» (Miscellaneous Poems of a Settlement by the Sea). The confrontation between the Kangxi· Emperor (r. 1662-† 1722) and the Holy See was growing worse and it looked certain that the former would ban Catholicism. In response to this situation, Lu Daohuai made his deletions. During the period of Daoguang's· Emperor (r. 1821-† 1850), the omissions remained in Xiaoshi shanfang «小石山房» (Xiaoshi shanfang Series). However, in Xuandong· reign, year one [XD 1= 1909]) the eighty religious verses were restored in Li Di's· block-printed edition entitled Mojing ji «墨井集» (Collectanea Mojing), though the two poems in memory of his late wife were left out.

See: Chen Yuan shixue lunzhu xuan «陈垣史学论著选» (Selected Works on Historical Studies by Chen Yuan), Shanghai remin chubanshe 上海人民出版社 Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1981, pp. 421-424 — For details.

According to Chan Yuan and Fang Hao, Wu Yushan came to Macao in "Kangxi reign, year twenty" [KX 20 = 1681], though Wang Zongyan insisted that it was "1680" (Kangxi reign, year nineteen).

See: WANG Zongyan 汪宗衍, Wu Yushan zai Aomen nianfen zhi yanjiu ji «吴渔山在澳门年份之研究论集» (Selection of Studies on the Dates of Wu Yushan's Stay in Macao), Chong Wen Shudian 崇文书店 Chong Wen Bookshop, 1971, pp. 147-149.

3 FANG Hao 方豪, Wu Yushan Xiansheng Sanba ji jianyi «吴渔山先生<三巴集>校译» (Wu Yushan's Sanba ji: Annotations), in "Wu Yushan yanjiu lunji" «吴渔山研究论集» ("Collection of Studies on Wu Yushan"), pp. 103-115.

4 In line one, "yuejin" "阅尽" ("the end of the text"), has appeared in many editions, though an error has occurred here. It should be corrected to "yuejin" "粤尽" ("the end of Guangdong domain"), as the Qing dynasty used to call Macao. See: LI Guangzhu's 李光珠, Aomen shi «澳门诗» (The Poetry of Macao), in ZHANG Rulin 张汝霖 -YIN Guangren 印光任, "Aomen jilüe" «澳门记略» ("Monograph of Macao") — Where the author mentions: "[...] banji nantian jin, Jiangshan wuling yu. " " 版籍南天尽,江山五岭余 " ("[...] the territory of Guangdong reaches as far as Macao.") and "[...] juk bujing fei wu ru. " " 居客不惊非误入 "("[...] avoid trouble by not entering [Macao]."); clearly showing that it was illegal for ordinary Chinese people to enter Macao without permission of the Chinese authorities. As one could be executed for entering Macao illegally, Wu Yushan and others must have obtained official documents before entering the settlement's territory.

5 FANG Hao 方豪, Zhongguo tianzhujiao renwu zhuan «中国天主教人物传» (A Biographical Study of Chinese Catholics), in LU Xiyan 陆希言, "Aomen" «澳门» ("Macao"), Zhonghua shuju 中华书局 China Press, 1988, vol.2, p.25ff.

6 SHI Jishan 释迹删 ed., Weishetang shiji«威涉堂诗集» (Collection of Weishetang Poems), vol.14, p.7 [Dao-guang reign, year 25].

SHAO Luoyang 邵洛羊, Wu Li «吴历» (Wu Li), 上海 Shanghai, Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe 上海人民美术出版社 Shanghai People's Arts Publishing House, 1962, p.3 — Where the story of Wu Yushan's loss of his mother and then his wife at the age of thirty one years old is narrated.

8 See: Chen Yuan shixue lunzhu xuan «陈垣史学论著选» (Selected Works on Historical Studies by Chen Yuan), op. cit., p.424.

9 WU Xingzuo 吴兴祚,«留村诗钞» (Poems in the Village); apud DENG Zhicheng邓之城, Qingshi jishi chubian «清诗纪事初编褓» (Qing Dynasty Poetry), 上海 Shanghai, Shanghai Guji chubanshe 上海古借出版社 Shanghai Guji Publishing House, 1984, vol.2, p. 641.

10 WANG Zhen 王轸, Aomen zuzhi ci «澳门竹枝词» (The Bamboo Poems of Macao), in ZHANG Rulin 张汝霖 - YIN Guangren 印光任, Aomen jilüe «澳门记略» ("Monograph of Macao"), part. 2, Ao Fan Pian «澳蕃篇» (Macao Foreigners).

11 WU Yushan 吴渔山, Houzhi «后帙» (Epilogue), in Mojing tiba «墨井题跋» ("Mojing's Annotations"), p.9.

12 Idem.

13 ZHU Jieqin 朱杰劝, Wu Yushan pingzhuan «吴渔山评传» (On Wu Yushan), in "Dongfang zazhi" "东方杂志" Dong Fang Journal", (39) 3, p.57

14 WU Yushan 吴渔山, Mojing shichao «墨井诗钞» (The Poems of Mojing), in "Daoguang Xiaoshi Shafan congshu ben" «道光小石册房丛书本» ("Xiaoshi Shanfan Series on Daoguang"), vol.1, pp. 1-2.

15 LU Tingcan 陆廷灿«南村随笔» (Jottings in South Village) in «陈垣史学论著选» (The Selected Works on Historical Studies by Chan Yuan), 上海 Shanghai, Shanghai renmin chubanshe 上海人民出版社 Shanghai People's Publishing House, p.413.

NOTES [CHAVES]

(1) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 140 (Macao):

"At the pass, Kuang-tung ends, then down to level sand;

mountain formations at Hao-ching can be compared to flowers.

Residents! Don't be alarmed! I'm not here by mistake From afar I've come to study the Way at São Paulo Church!

Poet's note: The mountain colors are purplish-black, their forms comparable to flower buds. São Paulo [St. Paul's] is the name of the church of the Society of Jesus.

The Chinese texts for these poems will be found in Sanpa chi {Sanba ji}, in CKH {Chou k'ang-hsieh, ed., Wu Yü-shan yen-chiu lun-chi (Wu Yushan yanjiu lunji) «吴渔山研究论集» (A Collection of Studies on Wu Yushan), Xianggang 香港 Hong Kong, Zhonghua shuju 中华书局 Ch'ung-wen [Zhonghua] Bookstore, 1971}, pp. 107-115, and in MCC {Li Ti, S. J., ed., Mo-ching chi [Mojing ji] «墨井集» (Collectanea Mojing), Shanghai 上海, Hsü-chia-hui Zikawei Press, 1909}, 3/45a-50a."

(2) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 152 (Macao): "Natural Philosophy" — hard to meet up with teachers from abroad;

those from afar who pursue it here — all of them are children. [...].

Poet's note: [...] "Hsing hsüeh " ("性学") {Xinque} is the first line is the Chinese terms used by the Jesuits to translate "Natural Philosophy" (as opposed to Theology). The first line may mean that there are few teachers of Natural Philosophy available; those who do live in Macao are busy teaching the children (line 2)."

(3) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 152 (Macao):

"In lamplight, our native tongues, one West and one East: when we don't understand, we can easily still use the brush and thus converse.

I write my fly-head words and you, your words like legs of flies; read horizontally or vertically, so hard to penetrate!"

Poet's note: The Western characters are like fly-legs; they are written horizontally. In reading them out loud, a sharp, high pitch is considered best."

(4) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 152 (Macao):

"[...]

Why is it they divide daily classes between mao and yu?

— They hear the bell's gentle ringing and study only at these two times.

Poet's note: The Schools are divided into Higher School and Lower School. The only classtimes are the two periods of mao {卯} [5-7 am] and yu {酉} {you}[5-7 pm]. They ring a bronze bell to signal the start of the class. [...]."

(5) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 149 (Macao):

"[...]

Before the lamp, this place is not a scholar's studio: I only hear the sound of bells, I hear no rooster's crow.

Poet's note: Dusk and dawn are marked only be the sound of the "self-sounding bell"."

(6) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 149 (Macao):

"[...]

From the front mountain and the ridge behind a simple sound of bells,

snapping awake the man of the Way from his idle dreams.

Poet's note: When the little bell of the Holy Mother Chapel on the front mountain begins to strike, the large bells of the various churches ring in response."

(7) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 148 (Macao):

"From the second story of this building I hear them on three sides:

the ocean waves, on windless days, still sounding like thunder!

[...].

Poet's note: This storied building has three floors; I sleep and eat on the second.

(8) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 153 (Macao):

"As one grows old, who can bring back the time when he was young?

I work so hard, day after day, but fear I'm much too slow.

I think of my old practice, wish to burn up my inkstone and then stop smearing crow-marks and give-up poetry.

Poet's note: I have received firm permission to study the Way."

(9) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 151 (Macao):

"When you've passed beyond Yü Ridge, there are no more flowering plums;

for half a year, my mysterious feelings have been entrusted to my brush.

Yesterday's painting, now I send to friends along the River Lung:

at windows in clear weather, they will unroll it and gaze.

Poet's note: For a long time I have seen no plums; alone I have climbed blossomless ridges."

(10) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 151 (Macao):

"I always sigh in autumn wind — we parted from Fisherman's Jetty: my two children like swallows, each went flying off.

And so I must expect that we remember at this season; at River Che about this time to perch are fattening up.

Poet's note: At this time, my children are in Hang-chou {杭州} {Hangzhou}."

(11) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 141 (Macao):

"Holding candles, burning high, they welcome the great saint; banners, pennants flap in the wind, cannon roar like thunder.

On all streets are spread with grass, green like tapestry: pedestrians are not allowed to trample it to dust.

Poet's note: When St. Francis Xavier [° 1506-† 1552] emerges in procession, the streets are covered with flowers and grass to show reverence. The streets are called "Awe of Majesty, Love of Virtue" (we-wei huai-te)."

(12) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 144 (Macao):

"Windswept ship, dashing quickly, day and night with dizzy speed;

who lie secure in it, dreaming of his homeland? The itinerary lies ahead — passage to the distant West! Today they must have gone beyond the Crimson Path.

Poet's note: In reckoning Master Couplet's [Father Philippe Couplet (1623-1693)] itinerary, I would estimate that he must have crossed the Crimson Path {赤道 } [Equator]."

(13) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 147 (Macao):

"A rainbow shows tomorrow morning wild typhoons will blow;

and fish that swallow boats down whole are swimming back and forth!

I wonder — after 90,000 li of windswept waves, when he's back home, with whom will he converse of life and death?

Poet's note: This refers to Mr. Lo {sic} going to the Greater West. [Fang Hao speculates that "Mr. Lo" may be the Portuguese Jesuit, Balthasar-Didacus da Rocha.]"{sic}

(14) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 140 (Macao):

"A bend of towers and terraces, five li {里} along the sand: the accents one hears everywhere are those of the Hakka folk.

The ocean doves are really foolish, urging farmers on: these people abandon the dike-fields, slanting beyond the waves.

Poet's note: The land stretches out five or six li {里}; the dike fields, beyond the water, are very meager. The residents know nothing of spring plowing; they make their living from the sea."

(15) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 148 (Macao):

"Boats from the Lesser West; merchants already know: they come to purchase foreign peppers, their shouts disturbing the twilight! For ten days in confusion they crowd the road of sand, bearers, both "black" and "white", flock after flock of them.

Poet's note: When goods from the Lesser West {小酉} {Xiaoxi} arrive in Macao, bearers wrangle in confusion for positions on the road."

(16) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 143 (Macao):

"Young women carefully adorn themselves, embroidered shawls covering them;

when would they ever expose their hairdos or paint their eyebrows long?

Their husbands in pursuit of profit often leave on trips: with each rising of the tide it's time to say goodbye.

Poet's note: Around their homes they plant no mulberries; the woman no nothing of sericulture. They cover their entire bodies in red and purple flowered embroideries with pointed peaks which they hold about themselves in such a way that the eyes and half the face are barely exposed. Those in mourning wear black."

(17) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 142 (Macao):

"Ocean vapors hover dark, change to evening sky: The fishing boats moor side by side, cooking fires arise. The wild geese know this place is far, hard to reach in flight;

the island moon tomorrow night — full of the year's twelfth month.

Poet's note: The Tanka {蜑家} {danjia} go out in boats to catch fish, making the ocean their home, and not returning for a full year."

(18) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 143 (Macao):

"Along evening embankments thay gather in the nets — a fishy smell from the trees!

The barbarian Tanka gather to buy wine, filling their jars to the brim.

[...]".

(19) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 141 (Macao):

"Yellow sand, whitewashed houses: here the black men live;

willows at the gates like sledge, still not sparse in autumn.

Midnight's when the Tanka come and make their harbor here;

fasting kitchens for noonday meals have plenty of fresh fish.

Poet's note: The blacks by custom admire a deep black color as beautiful; a pale black they might consider ugly. There are two varieties offish: shad and liu {鲤} {carp} fish. They are fried in Western olive oil, and then eaten for the forty-day lenten fast.

For the first four characters of the second line, the holograph reading has been followed: men liu ju t'an. In the poet's note, after "beautiful" (mei) {美}, the holograph has the phrase, tan-che wei ch 'ou, which is translated here."

(20) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 144 (Macao):

"[...]

All visitors drink wine and talk of things in native lands; the etiquette is much the same — they doff their hats!

Poet's note: Those who wear their hair in a hanging bun with gold threads favor a hat of black flannel wool; this hat is shaped like a bamboo li {笠}hat. When they meet someone they doff it as a greeting."

(21) See: Note [11].

(22) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 153 (Macao):

"A thousand lanterns glitter from a cliff of tiny trees: brocades forming cloudy peaks, candles forming flowers.

They decorate these winter mountains and all come to enjoy:

black men's dancing feet keep time to the guitar!

Poet's note: The winter mountains are made of wood formed into the underlying rock, brocaded cloth as mountain peaks, dyed candles of red and blue as flowers and trees. In form it is like a tortoise mountain. When the blacks sing, they move their feet in a dance which keeps time with the sounds of the guitar. This all takes place around the time of Jesus' birth."

(23) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 145 (Macao):

"At winter solstice mountain flowers open in profusion; in netted chairs on carriers' shoulders people come to look.

Lying and viewing, one wants to ask, / Who knows the flowers' names?

They open and fall before spring winds are here to urge them on.

Poet's note: Flowers blossom all four seasons. The traveler's palanquins are like boxes with long poles, and windows on both sides. One enters and then reclines. Those of the honored and wealthy are artfully ornamented with carved lacquer. Those of the ordinary people are like a sack of netting covered with oiled cloth. Two black men carry them on their shoulders."

(24) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 146 (Macao):

"The ninth month here is without frost — tangerines and citrons turn orange; in winter's three months comes the rain, ripening the loquats,

[...].

Poet's note: The loquats ripen in winter; they are meager and sour."

(25) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 150 (Macao):

"In deepest winter, there does not fall one flake of auspicious snow;

it's always like the Season of Plums, rain moistening robe and shirt.

[...].

Poet's note: During the cold season the trees do not wither, and there is no frost or snow at all."

(26) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 142 (Macao):

"In short plush shirts and leather shoes so light they promenade beneath Gun Terrace Mountain in newly cleared weather.

[...].

Poet's note: By custom they like short plush shirts, with narrow sleeves, and in the center knots on all four sides tied very tight. They wear leather shoes, each shoe with only one clog-tooth [heel]. Those who wear two swords — one long and one short — slanting at the loins, and carry a red wood stick, are the military officers."

(27) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p. 145 (Macao):

"A single hair, Green Isle rises from the sea, all around, blue-green colors and a cooling breeze. Yesterday we went for relaxation, then came home quite late, crossing waves at night that seemed to glitter red with fire.

Poet's note: Green Isle {青州} {Qingzhou} {Green Island} has many blue-green trees; it is a spot for enjoying the cool and relaxing. When the ocean waves swell at night, they look exactly like scattered fires or falling meteors.

"Green Isle": According to the British traveler Peter Mundy, who visited Macao in the mid-1630s, "On the Inner side of the Citty lieth a little rocky Iland called Isla Verde or greene Iland, beelonguing to the Padres of Saint Paule, or the Jesuits, and by them was caused to be planted, soe thatt Now in a Manner it is covered with Fruit trees and yeildeth by report 2 or 3000 Ryall off eightt yearly profitt to them." See Lt.-Col. Sir Richard Carnac Temple, ed., The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608-1667, vol.3, pt.1, London, Hakluyt Society, 1919, p.269."

(28) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p.147 (Macao):

"Before Cross Gate the sun moves towards the twilight; at Chiu-chou, colored mists scatter, at evening all is haze. A man who passes these two spots should not look bad where vision ends, among the dust, tears easily exhausted.

Poet's note: Cross Gate {十字门} {Shizimen} faces Chiu-chou {潮州} {Chaozhou}. When Li I-shan· [{Li Shangyin} 李商隐 (813?-858)] wrote in a poem, "I've only heard beyond the sea there is a place Chiu-chou," he was referring to this spot. If you gaze at it from afar, it seems to disappear and then to reappear, like nine blue spirals in the distance."

(29) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p.146 (Macao):

"Where the waves encircle the Three Mountains herbs grow fragantly;

how could they lead to the confounding of several sovereign lords?

Left behind by the Ch'in gatherers still they flouriskh, green:

the herbs themselves achieved Long Life, the men are long since gone!

Poet's note: Three Mountains is traditionally said to be the spot where herbs were plucked in the Ch'in {晋} {Jin} and Han {汉} periods."

(30) CHAVES, Jonathan, Singing the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li, Honolulu, SHAPS Library of Translations - University of Hawaii Press, 1993, p.150 (Macao):

"Where the wild mountains are highest, alone I explore secret places;

from below my clogs, a muddy smell; I'm frightened of tigers hidden deep.

Why do clouds obscure the road that leads back through the pass?

— They fear that if I see it, homesick feelings will arise.

Poet's note: If you climb the high mountain at the pass, you can see Kuangtung {广东} {Guangdong} in the distance."

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