Entalhe de Carimbos

A SURVEY OF NANBAN ART

Fernando G. Gutiérrez, S. J.*

THE INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN ART

Japan's contacts with foreign countries date back to the very beginning of her recorded history. The influence of Chinese thought was received through Korea from the earliest times and played a major role in the political, religious and cultural formation of the country. Later, during the Nara period (646-794), the cosmopolitan culture of the great T'ang dynasty (618-907) made a further contribution to the development of Japanese civilization. The Shoso-in Repository at Nara still preserves objects used at the Japanese court during the eighth century, and many of these samples reflect strong Chinese influence. In subsequent ages, during the Sung (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, the Japanese continued to study and admire Chinese learning. Some Western elements may be discerned in the arts and crafts imported from China; brocade weaving and musical instruments stored in the Shoso-in show certain Iranian features, while traces of Greek influence may perhaps be noted in some of the ancient Buddhist statues of Japan. But direct contact with Europeans did not occur until the middle of the sixteenth century.

The first Europeans to reach Japan were three Portuguese traders, who landed on the island of Tanegashima off the coast of Kyushu in 1543. The introduction of Western art, however, did not take place immediately, and the earliest recorded instance occurred half a dozen years later when Saint Francis Xavier arrived in Kagoshima, taking with him some examples of religious paintings. The daimyo of Sat-suma, Shimazu Takahisa (1514-71), tried to obtain information about the West and was shown a painting of the Virgin Mary which had been brought from India. The nobleman greatly admired the picture, and his mother asked for a copy, but as there was nobody at that time capable of making a reproduction, it was impossible to meet her wish.

Host box, bearing the Jesuit monogram IHS. Lacquer on wood, with motif worked in gold and mother-of-pearl inlay. Nanban Bunka-Kan, Osaka.

In a letter about the expansion of the apostolate in Japan, Xavier noted that religious paintings were a very effective means of propagating Christianity among the Japanese. Demand for these works increased, and there are references to a number of such paintings imported into Japan at about this time. It is recorded that Xavier showed an illustrated Bible to Ouchi Yoshitaka (1507-51), daimyo of Yamaguchi, and a painting of the Virgin Mary to Otomo Sorin (1530-87), daimyo of Bungo. A portrait of the same subject decorated the chapel of Luis de Almeida's hospital in Bungo, while other religious paintings were displayed in the church at Yamaguchi. The growing demand for such pictures far exceeded the supply from Europe, and the mission authorities realized the need for training Japanese artists to reproduce Western works of religious art.

Two seminaries were founded at Arima and Azuchi by the Jesuit Visitor Alessandro Valignano in 1580 to provide a thorough religious education for the sons of the Christian gentry. Valignano placed considerable emphasis on the importance of these establishments, for he saw in them a means of harmonizing Japanese and Western cultures. In addition to the usual curriculum, the schools also provided tuition in Western music and art, especially painting and engraving. Because of the uncertain political situation, the seminaries were frequently transferred from place to place, and at various times were established at Nagasaki, Hachirao and Shiki. There was an obvious need for a capable instructor in Western art and writing. In 1581 Francisco Cabral reminded the Jesuit authorities in Rome that a qualified missionary had been promised but had yet to arrive. He pointed out that religious paintings not only helped the devotion of the faithful but also raised Christianity in the esteem of the Japanese in general. According to Cabral, large and beautiful churches were being built throughout the country, but most of them were decorated only with pictures of indifferent quality drawn on paper.

In 1583 Giovanni Niccolo, the European who most influenced the artistic formation of Japanese painters in Western style and technique, arrived at Nagasaki. Born in Naples in 1560, he entered the Society of Jesus at the age of twenty and was duly assigned to the Japanese mission. For many years Niccolo produced religious paintings for the Japanese churches and taught Western art to the students of the Kyushu seminary; as far as is known, none of his own works has survived to the present day. A mission catalogue drawn up in 1592 mentions his work as a painter and instructor, and then adds briefly, "He has other manual skills." Among the other accomplishments of the talented Neapolitan was his skill in constructing organs with bamboo pipes, and ingenious clocks; Ieyasu expressed great delight in 1606 when he was presented with one of his elaborate clocks, which showed not only the time of day but also the movements of the sun and moon.

Details about the instruction in Western art are often mentioned in the missionary letters to Europe. In the annual letter of 1591-92, Luis Frois remarked that the seminary had been transferred once more and that the boys' studies included painting, printing and copper engraving, in addition to the more conventional lessons in Latin and religion. He added that the students produced oil paintings and engravings, which proved extremely useful in decorating the missionary churches. Frois was not alone in expressing admiration for the high quality of this work. The students reproduced some of the paintings brought back from Europe by the young Kyushu ambassadors in 1590, and some missionaries were apparently unable to distinguish between the original works and the copies. In other letters from missionaries there are frequent comments on the students' ability to assimilate the new artistic techniques. But, writing in 1599, Pedro Gomez pointed out that despite their undoubted imitative skill the students lacked creative originality when it came to producing their own work.

According to the mission catalogues, Niccolo was still teaching painting at Nagasaki up to the year 1614, and so it is certain that the school of painting continued until the expulsion of the missionaries in that year. But this does not mean that the practice of Western art in Japan came to an end at that time and died out at the very begin-ning of the Tokugawa persecution. There are various extant examples of works in the Western style that were produced after this date. The portrait of Saint Francis Xavier and The Mysteries of the Rosary were certainly painted after 1623, while the battle flags used at Shimabara in 1638 were obviously inspired by Western design and probably produced during the persecution. Some of these works may have been smuggled in from Macao, where Niccolo continued teaching Western art until at least 1623, while others were probably painted in secret by artists who remained in Japan.

Most of the artists who painted in the Western style were trained at the Kyushu seminary, and the names of some of them have been preserved. Leonardo Kimura was born in 1574 at Nagasaki, worked there as a painter at All Saints' Church and was martyred in the same city in 1619. Luis Shiozuka was also a native of Nagasaki and studied at the seminary in 1588; he later became a Jesuit and worked as a painter. Mancio Taichiku was born in 1574 at Uto in Higo, entered the Society of Jesus in 1607 and was occupied with painting until his death eight years later. Other Jesuit painters were Mancio João and Thadeu, both from Usuki in Bungo, and Pedro João from Kuchinotsu. The best known name, however, is that of Brother Jacobo Niwa, who was born of a Chinese father and a Japanese mother in 1579. He left Japan in 1601 and went to Macao, where he produced a painting of the Assumption for Saint Paul's Church. He afterwards worked in the interior of China and was of considerable assistance to Matteo Ricci in Peking; he was still painting at Macao as late as 1635. Finally, the names of some Japanese laymen who most probably studied under Niccolo are known. Ikushima Saburozaemon was a native of Nagasaki, but apparently no work has survived until the present time. The artist called Nobukata has been more fortunate, and several paintings bearing his seal are still preserved. Yamada Emonsaku was another pupil of Niccolo; during the Shimabara uprising he was incarcerated in a dungeon of Hara Castle under sentence of death for treachery but was released by the victorious Tokugawa troops.

Although Japanese artists certainly knew and practiced the technique of oil painting, they usually continued to employ their traditional pigments; this is especially true of the paintings in which they depicted Western scenes. The style of their work is of the greatest interest, for they were able, with varying degrees of success, to combine the vitality of the contemporary Kano School of Japanese painting with the style and technique introduced from the West. Despite the European influence, the clarity and composition characteristic of the Kano School are evident in many of their works. If this combining of Western technique and Japanese style had not been interrupted and had been allowed to reach greater maturity, there would undoubtedly have risen one of the most fascinating schools in the universal history of painting. But, in the event, the new fashion had no time to develop fully and reach perfection, and on the whole the art of the so-called Christian century of Japan lacks both depth and personality.

NANBAN ART

The term Nanban art is generally applied to works that were in any way influenced by or connected with the Europeans during this period. Nanban literally means "Southern Barbarian" and was originally derived from the Chinese concept that all foreigners were barbarians in comparison with the enlightened civilization of China. The Europeans reached Japan from the south and were consequently called Southern Barbarians. Of all the forms of Nanban art, paintings occupy the most important place, and the term Nanban-ga refers to Japanese paintings related in some way to Western art. In general Nanban art was produced in Japan under European influence during the century of contact with the West, but by extension the term is also used to designate European works that were imported into the country and influenced the native artists of the period.

Nanban paintings may be divided into two categories. To the first belong the works either introduced by the missionaries or executed under their direction, and as a result this type of painting is usually religious in theme. Although such paintings were relatively numerous and formed a large part of the output of the Nanban School, most of them were later destroyed in the anti-Christian persecutions and only a few survive to this day. In the second category are found the works of local Japanese artists who employed traditional techniques to depict on screens the customs and dress of Europeans. Some portray Europeans conversing, reading or playing musical instruments against a classical Western background. Another type of work shows European knights preparing to fight their Moorish adversaries or engaged in battle. There are also screens on which are illustrated views of some of the better-known European cities, such as Lisbon, Rome and Seville. In a separate and perhaps the most fascinating group may be included the Nanban byobu, or screens on which the artists portrayed the arrival of the great Portuguese trading ship, or nao, at Nagasaki and the welcoming scenes at the port. The works belonging to this second category are of particular interest, for they show the meeting between two distinct cultures and vividly illustrate the impressions that the Japanese formed of the Europeans from the distant and exotic West.

PAINTINGS OF RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS

Owing to their religious and educational value, European paintings were imported into Japan in considerable numbers by the missionaries. Some were used to decorate churches, while others were donated to individual Japanese as gifts. Despite the quantity imported, how- -ever, there were never enough to satisfy the demand, and in 1584 Frois noted that fifty thousand such paintings were needed to help evangelical work in Japan. He added that a certain missionary had started out from Europe with five thousand pictures, but so great was the demand from Christians en route, especially at Macao, that he had hardly any left by the time he finally reached Japan. As has already been pointed out, this constant demand and insufficient supply necessitated the production of such works in Japan itself. Very few of the religious paintings that were imported during this period have survived to the present day, and the European origin of some of them cannot definitely be established in every case, since the skill of the Japanese artists in copying these works is well known. But first of all we may make a brief survey of some of the paintings that appear to have certainly been taken from Europe, and in this way it will be possible to determine which of the European schools influenced the formation of the Western style of painting in Japan.

Dolorosa. Oil on canvas; Naban Bunka-kan, Osaka. One of the religious pictures imported into Japan by the missionaries about the beginning of the seventeenth century.
Virgin and Child. Oil on wood; Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka.

Virgin and Child is certainly one of the European works taken to Japan at this time. It belongs to the Italian school and was probably produced in a Venice studio toward the end of the sixteenth or at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The paintings taken to Japan were obviously not the finest works of art that Europe had to offer, and many of the pictures introduced by the missionaries were of poor quality. In addition to the obvious financial difficulties involved, first-class works could not be obtained in the required large numbers. The Virgin and Child is one of the best of the imported paintings; its rich color, delicate composition and intimacy are characteristic of the better exem-ples of the Venetian school and can be easily appreciated.

The Dolorosa was discovered some forty years ago in the possession of an Echizen family together with some ancient lithographs used for catechetical instruction. Various paintings based on this Dolorosa were produced in Japan, most of which were exact replicas, but in some cases a few original details have been added by the artists. This type of picture was also taken to Japan by the missionary Giovanni Battista Sidotti, who arrived from Manila in 1708; the actual painting taken by this priest is probably the Virgin of the Thumb, now preserved in Tokyo National Museum. The painting was kept for years in a government building at Nagasaki before being added to the national collection in Tokyo. The work appears to be by the Florentine artist Carlo Dolci (1616-86), and the Japanese would have been impressed by the tenderness that the painter managed to impart to the face. There is yet another painting of the Dolorosa in the Okuda Collection, but this belongs to the Spanish School and was probably taken to Japan toward the end of the Keicho period (1596-1614). The figure is depicted with clasped hands and a sword through the heart, and the portrait is framed by curtains held back by cherubs. The work is a reproduction of a Spanish retable and clearly shows the characteristics of the best Spanish painting of that time by combining a realism of the figure with a profound idealization. The face has a youthful, innocent expression and yet displays a mellow grief. Such portrayal of human sentiment and feeling was not common in the traditional Buddhist-inspired art of Japan, and the humanism of Christian art was one of the features most imitated by Japanese painters when they produced Western-style pictures.

Virgin of the Thumb. Oil on canvas; Tokyo National Museum. Possibly a later work of the Florentine artist Carlo Dolci (1616-86), this painting is said to have been taken to Japan in 1708 by the Italian missionary Giovanni Battista Sidotti (1667-1714).
Virgin and Child. Oil on wood; Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka. A European painting, probably of the Primitive Spanish or Italian School, taken to Japan in the sixteenth or seventeenth century to decorate a missionary church.
Virgin and Child. Oil on metal; Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka. Another work of the same subject, imported into Japan by the missionaries. These paintings not only served to decorate the Christian churches throughout the country, but were also used as models by Japanese artists painting in the Western style.

Another work also related to the Spanish school of painting is an oil painting on canvas of Saint Peter. Until comparatively recently this picture was kept in a Buddhist temple at Funabashi in Chiba prefecture, where it was revered as a Buddhist portrait. The saint is shown carrying the traditional keys in his left hand and reading a book held in his right. The elongated figure, the thin delicate hands, and the color of the mantle and tunic are all reminiscent of the school of El Grego (1541-1614). The painting is certainly not one of the illustrious artist's own works, but it may have been produced by a painter connected with his school. The elongation of the figure to express an intense spirituality is not unknown in Eastern tradition and may be found in famous works of sculpture such as the statue of the Kudara Kannon at Horyu-ji near Nara. Similar paintings of other Christian saints, for example, Saint Laurence, Saint Stephen and Saint Vincent, are preserved in the National Museum at Tokyo.

Another well known religious work taken to Japan at this time is The Veil of Veronica. Frois mentions in one of his letters that Valignano had presented a picture of The Holy Face of Christ to the family of Shibata Katsuie as a decoration for the chapel of his mansion. Shibata was an influential figure in the administration of Oda Nobunaga, and Frois saw and admired the painting during a visit to his mansion. Whether or not Shibata's painting is the same as The Veil of Veronica is not known, but it is quite possible that the two pictures are identical. In the present work the restrained sentiment and clarity of expression of the face are characteristic of the Flemish school, which was much in vogue at the time in Europe.

In the course of time it was natural that Japanese artists of the Nanban school should become dissatisfied with mere copying of imported paintings and should wish to produce more original work in-accordance with their own inspiration. The degree of their success in combining Western style with Oriental inspiration may be seen in their pictures, for they created a type of work that was entirely new to Japanese artistic tradition, especially as regards theme. The undoubted Western influence under which they worked still left plenty of scope for personal interpretation, and they began to produce their own work on cloth, paper, tablets and copper plates. In general, Japanese painters of religious subjects necessarily relied on European models, since there was no precedent of Christian themes in their own traditional paintings. The genre painters were not so circumscribed in this respect, and they provide far better examples of the fusion of styles and themes.

Saint Peter. The portrait belongs to the Spanish School of painting and was taken to Japan in the sixteenth or seventeenth century. For many years it was preserved in the Temple of Kakuo in Funabashi, and was venerated as a portrait of a Budist Saint.
Virgin and Child. Oil on metal; Tokyo National Museum. A work of the Spanish School imported into Japan in the latter part of the sixteenth or the early seventeenth century.
The Veil of Veronica. Oil on metal; Tokyo National Museum. A painting of the Flemish School. The painting may have once belonged to the sixteenth-century daimyo Shibata Katsuie.

Of the works painted on wooden tablets, two examples of the same subject may be briefly mentioned. In the first Virgin and Child, the Virgin has her hands clasped in prayer, while the Child lies in her lap. The simplicity of design and clarity of line make the work appear more like an engraving than an oil painting. Both faces show extreme refinement, and there is a deep religious sense about the painting. In the background may be seen a landscape divided into two unequal parts with all the characteristic detail of European tradition. This form of landscape undoubtedly attracted the Japanese artists who studied the paintings of the Flemish school. Another painting of the same subject has the Child being in the left arm while the mother's right hand joins his hands. The background is obscure and there is no landscape visible. The inspiration of the painting, with the small-proportioned angel kneeling before the principal figures and the large golden haloes, is strongly reminiscent of the primitive Spanish and Italian Schools of the Renaissance, and also suggests the Russian icons of the Byzantine tradition. The same theme was also represented on metal plates; the subject was the most frequent and popular among the religious works of Japanese artists and in this, of course, they were merely following the tradition of European painters.

In Virgin and Child, the Virgin holds the Child to her face and the two faces are united in an expression of tenderness. Here again this portrayal of senti-ment in religious iconography evidently attracted the attention of the Japanese. This particular painting was probably inspired by works of the Spanish school of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Two other works on copper plates may also be mentioned. In Christ Carrying the Cross, Christ is depicted carrying the cross on his right shoulder; the facial expression is hard and the head is turned to the left in a somewhat unnatural manner. This particular theme was constantly repeated in contemporary Spanish paintings, and it is obvious that the Japanese painters were influenced by this school. The color of Christ's tunic in this work is also reminiscent of the same school. Yet another painting on copper is the Repentant Magdalen. The saint is portrayed resting against a rock and contemplating a crucifix placed to one side. The composition leaves much to be desired, especially as regards the figure of the saint and the landscape that serves as a background. Apart from some details in the center of the painting, the work appears to have been left unfinished. Both Magdalen's strong facial expression and the ray of light appearing in the sky remind one of the Baroque school of Spanish painting; in addition, this was a favorite theme for Spanish painters, and the general handling of the picture shows various characteristics of their school.

Christ Carrying the Cross (detail). Oil on metal; Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka.
The Repentant Magdalen (detail). Oil on metal; Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka.

The later paintings, on which the Japanese artists were able to leave a more distinct imprint of their own personality are of greater interest than the early reproductions of European works. Among these may be numbered three paintings illustrating the fifteen mysteries of the rosary; all of these works are far more original than the paintings described above, and the composition, coloring and technique of traditional Japanese painting are more freely utilized in the depiction of a Christian theme. They show that the artists had learned to unite their individual technique with Christian spirituality, and in so doing they produced a new type of religious painting in Japan. The artists evidently had sufficient confidence in their own inspiration to employ their tra-ditional materials and techniques; all three pictures are painted on paper with the customary Japanese pigments. The chromatic richness of the painting in Kyoto University is also traditional, and the artistic style of some of its details reminds one of scenes in the emaki-mono, or "picture scrolls," produced during the finest periods of Japanese painting. The mysteries of the Redemption, particularly in the works at Kyoto and Osaka, are painted with the same ease, spontaneity and narrative technique to be found in emaki-mono. But to these traditional qualities have been added Western techniques in the use of light and perspective. In this way the works show a happy union of tradition and technique, which resulted in paintings aesthetically far more attractive than the earlier reproductions.

The Mysteries of the Rosary, formerly preserved at Urakami Cathedral but destroyed by bombing in 1945, is the most rudimentary and probably the earliest of the three paintings in question. The Joyful, Sorrowful and Glorious Mysteries are depicted, in Japanese fashion, from right to left, starting from the bottom row. Beneath them are portrayed the figures of three saints, of whom two are Franciscan, probably Saint Francis and Saint Anthony, while the third appears to be Saint John the Baptist. These large figures are not placed in the center of the composition, as in the case of the other two pictures. These other two works were, in fact, probably painted by the same artist, since they show many similarities, but the Urakami painting is quite distinct in various respects. It is possible that the artist who produced this latter work had been instructed by the Franciscan friars, since two of the saints appearing in the lower part of the painting belong to the Order of Saint Francis; alternatively he may have been commissioned by the friars to produce this particular work for use in catechetical instruction. The remote origin of all three works may probably be traced to the retables of the churches in Europe, especially in Spain. These retables generally present a synopsis of the Redemption expressed in painted or sculptured figures representing each mystery, while in the center of the composition is usually depicted the principal figure of Christ or a patron saint. But whatever the genesis of this Urakami picture, the painter evidently possessed sufficient skill and personality to produce a genuine work of art illustrating the principal Christian truths.

The Mysteries of the Rosary. Color on paper; Kyoto University. Saints Ignatius and Francis Xavier are portrayed in the lower foreground, together with Saints Matthias and Lucy. As the two Jesuit saints were canonized only in 1623, the painting was executed probably several years after this date at the very earliest. The depiction of the Mysteries of the Rosary around the sides and across the top of the painting is particularly skillful. During the anti-Christian persecution in Japan, the picture was hidden inside a bamboo cylinder and was discovered only in 1930.

The painting now in the Azuma Collection at Osaka was discovered in 1920, and, although depicting the same theme, it has a far different composition. The mysteries are distributed around the central figures, with the Joyful Mysteries running up the left-hand side, the Sorrowful across the top, and the Glorious down the right-hand side. The central portion is divided into two parts: in the upper division the Virgin and Child are portrayed between hanging curtains, while in the lower part Saint Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit Order, and Saint Francis Xavier are shown venerating the Eucharist, represented by a host and chalice, below which is found the Jesuit emblem IHS (lesus Hominum Salvator). Across the top of the lower section runs an inscription in Portuguese, "Praised be the Blessed sacrament." Beneath the two saints is written in Latin, "S. [anctus] P. [ater] Ignatius. S. P. Franciscus Xaverius. Societatius Iesus"; the artist made a slip in the spelling and should have written, of course, Societatis. The artist has made no attempt to integrate the two central parts of the work, and it is most probable that he copied them from two different pictures. Nevertheless this painting is far superior to the Urakami example in composition and execution. The figure of the Virgin in the center has badly deteriorated and has almost disappeared; fortunately this is not true of the Child, who carries a sphere of the world in his left hand while giving a blessing with his right. The mysteries around the sides are painted with greater ease and inspiration than those in the Urakami picture and some of them are depicted in an extremely skillful manner; the Nativity, for example, is quite extraordinary and is reminiscent of the style of the Primitive Spanish School. In general the assimilation of the theme and the way in which the traditional materials are handled are wholly admirable.

Saint Francis Xavier. Portrait by an unknown Japonese artist, after 1623; color on paper; Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art.

The best preserved of the three paintings is to be found at Kyoto University. The work was discovered as recently as 1930, hidden in the thatched roof of an old house; it had been rolled up within a bamboo cylinder for several centuries, but was still in excellent condition. The fact that this is a later work than the Urakami painting enables us to note the development and perfection of the Japanese artists in their representation of Christian themes. In comparison with the earlier paintings of the same century, the application of color in this work is most original and is somewhat similar to the technique practiced in the production of emaki-mono. As in the Azuma painting at Osaka, an attempt has been made to employ the techniques of perspective and chiaroscuro in this picture. The distribution of the mysteries and the grouping of the central figures are the same as in the former work, but the figures of Saint Matthias and Saint Lucy have been added somewhat awkwardly in the lower section; the names of these saints were written in different colored lettering, probably after the work was completed. The general artistic quality of the picture, however, is more advanced than in the previous examples, and this superiority may be especially noted in the drawing of the faces of the principal figures and of the Virgin's delicate hands, particularly the left one holding a flower. The depiction of the mysteries is more or less identical with that of the previous work, but is marked with a greater dynamic sense. The composition of some of the scenes has been slightly changed; in the Nativity, for example, the Virgin is seen kneeling to the right of the Child, whereas in the Azuma picture she is depicted on his left. But there need be no hesitation in ascribing both paintings to the same artist; the fact that Saint Ignatius and Saint Francis Xavier are portrayed suggests that he was trained in the Jesuit seminary.

Closely connected with these pictures featuring the Mysteries of the Rosary is the portrait of Saint Francis Xavier, which may have been painted by a Japanese artist in Macao in about 1623. It was natural that the Jesuits and their students should continue to produce religious paintings in their exile, and the post 1614 mission catalogues specifically mention that Niccolo, Thadeu, Mancio, João and Niwa carried on their artistic work in Macao. This particular portrait, painted in color on paper, is typically Japanese in its material and style; only the subject is Western. The handling of the theme is also Japanese, especially in the background where a mystical vision breaks through the darkness; this is characteristic of the Kano school, which often depicted visions against such a golden background. The details of Xavier's face remind one of the portrait of the same saint in the two rosary pictures at Kyoto and Osaka, and the same artist may well have painted all three works. In this portrait Xavier is depicted in ecstasy, and from his mouth issue the words Satis est, Domine, satis est ("Enough, Lord, enough"), which he is known to have exclaimed in moments of intense prayer. His facial expression reflects the mystical experience that he was undergoing, while a vision of a crucifix surrounded by angels appears from the background. From the aesthetic point of view the hands are obviously the weakest element in the composition; they are clumsy and awkwardly out of place, and the artist was not able to depict them naturally. There are, incidentally, many examples of Japanese portraits in which the artist's efforts have been totally spent in depicting the facial expression of the subject, leaving the hands somewhat neglected in the overall composition.

In the Jesuit Church of the Gesù at Rome there are two paintings, both by Japanese artists of the seventeenth century, illustrating scenes of martyrdom in contemporary Japan.

The first depicts The Great Martyrdom of Nagasaki, which took place on September 10, 1622, when more than fifty Christians -- European and Japanese -- were decapitated or burned at the stake, while the second is a composite painting of the Jesuit martyrs who suffered death between 1597 and 1633. In both these works the artists have depicted scenes of great breadth with extraordinary richness of detail. This is particularly true of the first painting, in which the victims are seen enclosed within a bamboo stockade on the hillside. Outside the barrier are the crowds gathered to witness the event, and many of the onlookers are kneeling in prayer as the martyrs are put to death. Some men dressed in European clothing, presumably Portuguese merchants, are shown in the upper right-hand comer, while long rows of armed guards keep watch to prevent any disturbance or rescue attempt. There is a great sense of composition in both these works, reminiscent of Kano School paintings, although Western influence can be discerned in the use of perspective on the different levels on which the scene is depicted. In The Great Martyrdom of Nagasaki, however, the perspective owes more to Oriental than Western inspiration. The spectator looks down upon the scene from above, and the artist continues to develop the theme from this overhead viewpoint. The hills and trees in the landscape are clearly Oriental in inspiration, but the dark tones employed are closer to Western tradition; possibly the Japanese artist preferred to describe the scene in this somber manner to emphasize and bring out the horror and suffering in the events portrayed.

The Shimabara flag was used in the rebellion that took place in 1637-38 and shows that Japanese artists continued to work in the Western style for a considerable time after the outbreak of persecution. The flag is made of white linen, upon which is painted a chalice and host, symbolic of the Eucharist, with two attendant angels in attitudes of prayer. Across the top runs the inscription in Portu-guese, "Praised be the Blessed Sacrament"; loops are attached along the top and right-hand side so that the flag could be hung from a castle wall or flown from a mast. The drawing is simple, almost lineal, with the figures sketched in ink, although the artist has added some shading according to the normal technique employed in water coloring. This shading is certainly Western in style and gives the figures greater depth than is normally found in Oriental paintings. Above all, the worshiping angels are painted with great agility. The dynamic sense of line and the shading of the figures recall European engravings produced in the fifteenth century. But the artist may well have received some inspiration from traditional Japanese painting, such as the figure in Bodhisattva Seated upon a Cloud, a tinted painting executed on hemp during the Nara period and preserved in the Shoso-in Repository. It is also possible to appreciate in this Shimabara work the dynamic technique of ink tracing, which was later developed to such a high degree of excellence. The technique is generally used to give a sensation of movement, and this effect has been successfully achieved by the seventeenth-century Japanese artist in his depiction of the angels, apparently flying towards the chalice.

The flag is said to have been the standard of the rebel Amakusa Shiro, and some authorities have attributed the work to Yamada Emonsaku, who, as already mentioned, was present in Hara Castle during the uprising. Together with the flag a document is preserved stating that the banner was captured by members of the Nabeshima family and that they were given special permission to retain the trophy despite the general prohibition against the possession of objects related to Christianity.

Two Knights, a painting attributed to Nobukata. The awkwardly posed figures were copied by the Japanese artist from a European painting. Colors on paper (114 x 53cm). Ikenage Collection, Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art.
Woman Playing the Guitar, by the Japanese painter Nobukata about 1590. Color on paper, mounted as a kakemono; Yamato Bunka-kan, Nara. Europeans playing musical instruments were a popular subject for Japanese artists painting in Western style, and similar figures may be found in various other works of this period.

For want of a better category into which they may be fitted, portraits of the Zen patriarch Bodhidharma and other Buddhist personalities may be conveniently included in this section dealing with religious paintings executed by Japanese artists in the European manner. There are several extant works painted in a semi-Western style of portrait technique and depicting Oriental figures. One of the best of these is Bodhidharma by the painter Nobukata, while another portrait by the same artist features Nikkyo, a Buddhist monk of the Nichiren sect. This fusion of Western tech-nique with a strictly Oriental theme is not common, and its originality presents considerable interest. It seems that Japanese artists wished to employ modern Western techniques even when portraying Oriental subjects; this is particularly the case after the expulsion of the missionaries in 1614, when the public portrayal of Christian subjects or themes was strictly forbidden.

PAINTINGS OF SECULAR SUBJECTS

These works can be classified under the general heading of genre paintings produced by Japanese artists during the century of contact with the West. Such paintings served as a means of spreading knowledge of Western life and culture, and fortunately a comparatively large number has been preserved. An examination of these works shows which details of European life caught the attention of the Japanese and also what type of Western paintings were best known to the native artists. It is hardly surprising that the very best examples of Western art did not generally find their way to Japan, and as a result Japanese painters were not influenced by works of the highest quality. But this disadvantage did not prevent them from creating a new style by combining aesthetic details from the West with those of the Japanese tradition. As has been noted, Japanese artists felt freer to express their own inspiration in these genre paintings than in religious works, and they thus provide a tantalizing glimpse of the possibilities that could be reached in this new composite style. This does not mean that when producing genre paintings the artists did not copy Western pictures, since it is known that many of the paintings brought back by the young Kyushu amabassadors were either copied or closely imitated in Japan. Some of these paintings, incidentally, are specifically mentioned in contemporary records: there was a portrait of the Duchess of Tuscany, Bianca Capello, by Alessandro Allori; a self-portrait of Vicenzo Gonzaga, heir to the Duke of Mantua; and a painting of the funeral of the Emperor Charles V.

But while copying the European originals the Japanese artists did not slavishly reproduce every single detail but felt free to adapt the subject as they saw fit and to interpret certain details according to their own inspiration. Their originality was often necessarily exercised by the enlarging of the Western paintings when they were reproduced on screens, since the works brought from Europe were generally small in size owing to lack of space on the merchant ships. The artists' originality was further expressed by their use of traditional materials and techniques, for Japanese pigments were commonly used instead of the thicker and more consistent oil. Japanese brushes also have a greater flexibility than those of Europe, for they can produce faster tracing and express details in a more dynamic manner. All of this goes to make Japanese genre painting executed in this style far more interesting from the artistic point of view than the paintings illustrating religious themes.

Among the various categories into which these genre paintings may be divided is the type portraying European figures. An example may be seen in Portrait of a Western Woman, a painting of color on paper. The artist has depicted a woman of rather feeble aspect as she emerges from behind some curtains; the general posture of the figure is somewhat artificial and unsatisfactory. But the interest of the work lies in the depiction of figures and costumes of Renaissance style, subjects that most attracted the attention of contemporary Japanese artists, who must have experienced considerable difficulty in portraying figures so different from those of their own tradition. It should also be borne in mind that the artist had probably never personally seen a European woman and was obliged to rely completely on imported portraits. Another painting belonging to this class is Two Young Nobles. The facial expressions and postures of the two youths are also feeble and affected, but the picture's interest is found in the inclusion of a landscape background typical of contemporary European pictures. There is some attempt to use perspective in the Western style, although the faintly sketched mountains in the far distance appear to owe their inspiration more to Oriental tradition.

A favorite theme of Japanese artists was to portray Europeans reading from books. There are pictures showing a hermit or priest reading, while others depict men and women intent on their books. Among the first type is a picture of a solitary monk, seated on a rock and reading a book; another painting shows a priest reading aloud from a book to a youth, who is gesturing with his left hand, perhaps drawing attention to a particular passage. In the last painting a landscape may be discerned in the background, and the artist has done his best to demonstrate the Western technique of perspective. In both pictures, in fact, the landscape is more interesting than the figures in the foreground, since the depiction of the men is poor and lacking in naturalness.

Social Customs of Foreigners. Detail from a pair of six-panel screens; color on paper; 84 x 268cm.; Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka. A screen depicting a European pastoral scene and a boar hunt.

Another activity often represented in these genre paintings is the playing of musical instruments, and such works purportedly illustrated the social customs of the West, which the Japanese found so intriguing. It is probable that such pictures were commissioned by wealthy patrons who wished to decorate their mansions with exotic paintings. Woman Playing the Guitar is a painting in the form of a kakemono, or "hanging picture," and was produced by Nobukata about 1590. There is still extant a very similar painting -- or perhaps a copy -- with a landscape, which this work completely lacks; however, Nobukata's painting is far superior and more deft in manner, and the mature style of this artist can be appreciated by a comparison of the two works. The two themes of Western people reading books and playing musical instruments are occasionally combined on large six-panel screens. The pair of screens Social Customs of Foreigners shows groups of Westerners engaged in conversation, playing musical instruments, reading a book and tending sheep. The figures are seen against a background in which the artist has included views of the countryside, mountains, bays and towns in an apparent effort to depict practically all the different types of landscape included in the paintings imported into Japan. The result is not wholly satisfactory, for there is a certain crowding and artificial note in the composition. The artists were perhaps a little overwhelmed by the novelty of the Western paintings reaching Japan in such abundance, and they often tried to unite indiscriminately, but not without ingenuity, all the features of the imported works. The coloring of this particular painting is as rich as the chromatic brilliance of the grand screens produced by the pictorial artists during the Momoyama period (1573-1615), and the materials employed were the same as those used in traditional Japanese works. The artist has attempted to present a perspective interpretation in the Western manner and on the whole he has been successful. The general style and composition are reminiscent of European paintings produced in the latter half of the Renaissance period, and the artist appears to have copied the affected and feeble-looking gestures of the figures from this source.

In another pair of six-panel screens representing Social Customs of Foreigners, the first has a section depicting a marine landscape with ships sailing in the distance. The center of the screen is dominated by a Western-style building, not unlike the building seen in the previous screen; the perspective of the circular tower at the rear appears incorrect, and the edifice is noticeably tilted. To the right are shown people conversing and playing instruments; again various points of similarity with the previous screen may be noted, making it quite probable that the same artist produced both works. In the second screen of this pair, a boar hunt is in progress, while to the right groups of people converse or walk along the road leading to the hills in the background. The work as a whole reflects a totally unreal, bucolic atmosphere, which clearly demonstrates the exotic concept that the Japanese had formed of life in the West. In all likelihood the source of inspiration of these screens was drawn from separate European engravings and combined into one large original work.

Crusaders and Mussulmen. A four-panel screen, formerly a wall painting: color on paper; 166.2 x 468cm.; Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art. These mounted warriors were painted by an unknown Japanese artist about 1590. The work displays considerable skill in Western painting techniques, but the use of perspective is faulty and the overall effect of the composition is somewhat overpowering.

The Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art preserves a similar pair of six-panel screens also painted on paper with traditional Japanese pigments. In the background may be seen mountains and the sea, but the principal interest is in the Western figures depicted prominently in the foreground. Once more people are shown conversing, playing instruments and sleeping, but their distribution is unnatural and forced. This lack of realism, both as regards the figures and the background, may perhaps not be due to lack of artistic skill but may well be meant to depict the strange and distant scenes so totally foreign to the Japanese tradition. An original note is struck by the introduction of a Japanese woman wearing a kimono in the center of the second screen, and the seated figure to the left is looking up from his book and gazing at her. This may have been intended as as symbol of the encounter between East and West or of the fusion then taking place between European and Oriental styles of painting.

There is a second group of Western-style paintings illustrating secular subjects, and these portray Christian nobles confronting or actually fighting Moorish adversaries. In this category may be found a screen, Crusaders and Mussulmen, painted in color on paper. The screen is made up of only four panels instead of the customary six, and the paintings originally decorated some fusuma, or "sliding doors," of a chamber in Wakamatsu Castle. It is thought that it was painted about 1590 by a Japanese artist trained in the Jesuit seminary. In comparison with the scenes depicting foreigners' social customs, these screens possess a distinctly higher artistic quality. This superiority is possibly due to the fact that the artist has limited himself to portraying the Western figures as the only new element in the work and has disregarded everything else in order to follow the best style of Japanese decorative art. Little attempt has been made to show the landscape in any detail; the background is painted in a rich golden color, and the foreground is shown in a darker color representing the ground on which the horses are stamping. The figures obviously represent Westerners, as may be seen from their robes and weapons; the warrior on the extreme left carries a great sword on which is stamped the Roman monogram SNPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus). The horses have the grandeur seen in Chinese paintings of the T'ang dynasty, which were occasionally reproduced by Japanese artists. The same sense of vigor and movement so ably communicated by Chinese artists is found here in these equestrian figures painted by a Japanese artist in the Western style. The chromatic richness of the work is in the best tradition of Japanese decorative art. It is obvious that the intention to use the Western techniques of perspective and chiaroscuro is far less pronounced in this painting than in others already described, but the success achieved by the painter in combining elements of European and Oriental art in the one work indicates the breadth of his talent.

Another pair of screens has the same theme of four mounted warriors, but in this case the figures are not confronting each other in fighting stances. It has been suggested that the two African nobles are meant to portray Ethiopian kings, while various conjectures have been made regarding the identity of the European knights. There is considerable similarity between these screens and the previous one, and the terrace on which the figures are depicted is the same in both works. But this pair has been executed in a far less able manner; the perspective of the terrace is unnatural, and the horses have been painted in a somewhat static manner lacking in vitality. It is interesting to note that the Imperial Household possesses an eight-panel screen that depicts eight practically identical mounted warriors, grouped in the same four pairs. The treatment of the horses, incidentally, has obviously been influenced by the sixteenth-century Spanish and Portuguese Schools, and these in turn were influenced by the Italian School of the previous century. In these paintings these influences have been united with the Oriental, especially Chinese, tradition. The names of two painters of the fifteenth-century Italian School, the Florentine Tommaso Masaccio (1401-28) and Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), immediately come to mind in this regard. Uccello, in particular, depicted his horses in a monumental style and for this purpose employed the technique of considerable foreshortening; this is particularly noticeable in three of his battle paintings, which once belonged to the Medici family, and can be admired today in museums in Flor-ence, Paris and London. This foreshortening of Uccello's horses appears to have influenced Japanese painters, especially the artist responsible for this pair of screens.

One of the most splendid examples of Japanese decorative painting in the Western style is undoubtedly the six-panel screen, The Battle of Lepanto. The battle took place on October 7, 1571, and was, of course, a naval engagement, but the artist has conveniently transferred the conflict to dry land. Mounted warriors, foot soldiers, elephants and ships have all been painted in the most brilliant colors; once more the Roman monograph SNPQR is to be seen on the banners and flags of the ships and soldiers. At the far left, Philip II, dressed as a Roman emperor, sits on a throne in his chariot and impassively surveys the tumultuous scene before him. The screen is reminiscent of the paintings in a chamber of the Escorial called the Room of Battles, which was decorated by Italian artists. There can be no doubt that examples of their style reached Japan and served as models for the battle scenes painted during this period. Despite this Western influence and theme, however, the artist has painted the clouds in the upper background according to traditional Japanese fashion.

Yet another type of painting depicts views of well-known cities in the West. Such paintings generally provide a bird's-eye view of each city and sometimes include figures of men and women representing the inhabitants of each particular place. Twelve Cities is painted on paper and divided into two parts. The left-hand portion shows a map of the northern hemisphere, surrounded by plans of the six cities of Lisbon, Venice, Bergen, Ankara, Mexico and Goa; in the other half the artist has depicted the southern hemisphere, along with the plans of Aden, Stockholm, Antwerp, Hamburg, Seville and Genoa. The artist has carefully distinguished the characteristic details of each city, and provides the spectator with a bird's-eye view that is half-map and half-landscape.

Another work in this category is a fine eight-panel screen illustrating Four Great Cities of the West, again painted in color on paper. Each city covers two panels while in the upper part are seen representative citizens of each place. The work is artistically far superior to the previous screen in Osaka. The views are more complete and detailed, and the portrayal of the citizens has a novel and ingenious appeal. From left to right the cities depicted are Lisbon, Madrid, Rome and Constantinople; typical views of each place are clearly shown, together with a suitable landscape. The picture of Lisbon is extremely interesting, for, as well as featuring easily recognizable landmarks of the city, the painter has included different types of ships of that time anchored in the harbor. The chromatic richness of the work is quite extraordinary, and the screen presents a brilliantly decorative appearance. The screen mentioned above in the collection of the Imperial Household not only depicts eight horsemen but also includes identical, but reduced, pictures of these cities in the same order.

To a certain extent this type of work may perhaps be related to the intervention of Alessandro Valignano, for in several letters he expressed his appreciation of such painted screens. He particularly admired the screen depicting the city and castle of Azuchi and sent the painting as a gift to the Pope; it is also recorded that while in Macao he ordered a map of China to be painted on a screen as another gift to the Pope. He further proposed that views of Rome and other European capitals should be painted in Europe after the fashion of Japanese byobu. It is possible that his suggestion was duly followed, and that paintings of European cities were sent to Japan and there served as models for local artists.

Lisbon (left) and Madrid; detail from Four Great Cities of the West, an eight-panel screen (each screen 158,7 × 466,8cm). Colors on paper. Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art.

Closely connected with these works are the screens on which are depicted maps of the entire world drawn in accordance with the geographical knowledge of the time. Such paintings usually have a greater cartographical interest than artistic merit, although they certainly do not lack skill and attraction. In general these mapa mundi are illustrated with great richness of color against a blue background; ships ploughing through the seas and disporting dolphins are added to break up the sci-entific rigidity of the work. Contemporary European documents affirm that Japanese artists had great ability in accurately reproducing maps of the world and of different countries. The Japanese had obviously a great deal to leam from the maps and engravings imported from the West, but at the same time European cartographers were able to improve their own maps of Asia by carefully studying the Japanese maps of Japan and China that were sent back by the missionaries. While visiting Padua in July, 1585, the young Kyushu ambassadors were presented by Melchior Guilan-dinus with a copy of Abraham Ortelius' celebrated atlas, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, which they took back to Japan. This volume probably served as a basis for many of the world maps painted on screens during this period. It may also be noted in passing that the same benefactor in Padua also presented the embassy with a three-volume work illustrating the cities of the world. Although the title of this work is not given in contemporary accounts, the book was most probably Georg Braun's Civitates Orbis Terrarum, published in Cologne in 1572; certainly the view of Lisbon on Japanese screens is very similar to the illustration of the same city in Braun's work.

NANBAN SCREENS

The final group of paintings to be considered can best be entitled Nanban byobu, or "Southern Barbarian screens", and for the mosf part they depict the arrival of the great Portuguese ships at Nagasaki and the ensuing scenes of welcome. These paintings form the most original group within the limits of the Nanban school, for they interpret European and Japanese relations in a distinct and quite unmistakable way. About sixty of these screens are known to exist, and some of theme are preserved outside Japan. Their popularity clearly demonstrates the interest of the seventeenth-century Japanese in everything related to the exotic customs and dress of the foreigners from the West. Moreover, these works were also popular among European merchants, and several were bought or received as gifts from the Japanese. Although Western influence can be discerned in these pictures, the materials employed and the pictorial technique were entirely traditional. Most of the paintings are unsigned, but their style shows that practically all the best examples were produced by artists of the Kano school in the second half of the Momoyama period. A few of the artists are known by name. The screen in the Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art is signed by Kano Naizen (1570-1616), and he also appears to have painted the screen in the National Museum of Antique Art at Lisbon. The screen in the Suntory Art Museum, Tokyo, is attributed to Kano Sanraku (1559-1635), while the Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka, possesses another which is the work of Kano Mitsunobu (1561-1608). In other screens small details appear, which seem characteristic of one particular artist, but such indications are generally insufficient to attribute the work with any degree of certainty.

The departure of the nanban ship for Japan. The artist shows a Portuguese ship leaving a foreign port. One of a pair of six-pannel nanban screens, signed by Kano Naizen (1570-1676).

Kobe Municipal Museum of Nanban Art.

The precise period in which these screens were produced is not known, and various dates have been suggested, but both internal and external evidence points to the period between 1590 and 1630. The return of the Kyushu ambassadors in 1590 aroused great interest in things European, and this event may well have begun the demand for screens depicting the arrival of the Nanban ship. In 1614, however, Christianity was proscribed, and the screens that show neither missionaries nor churches were presumably painted after this date. Furthermore, the paintings generally depict the great Portuguese carrack, or nao, but this ship was replaced in 1618 by fleets of smaller and faster galliots in an attempt to break the Dutch blockade. It may be safely presumed, then, that most of the best-known screens were painted during the Keicho period lasting from 1596 to 1614.

The Nanban byobu were usually produced as pairs of six-panel screens and they can be roughly classified according to their content. The standard type shows the great ship in harbor on the left-hand side, while missionaries and Japanese are seen on the right coming forward to greet the Portuguese captain-major and his retinue. A map of the world is occasionally included in the composition, and the foreigners may sometimes be seen trading with the Japanese. In another type of screen the artist portrays the merchants leaving a foreign port, presumably Goa, and arriving at Nagasaki. But whatever the composition of the screen, the Portuguese nao invariably appears prominently and is shown in considerable detail.

The artists did not attempt to reproduce the scene in rigorous detail either as regards the place or the event. They tended to concentrate on the decorative value of the screens and emphasized the elements that would have been unfamiliar to most Japanese; thus the exaggerated height of the foreigners and the bagginess of their bombacha pantaloons are regular features of these works. Care was taken to include all the foreign items that would most interest the Japanese. The great ship is placed well to the fore; figures on board are clearly shown and negro sailors can be seen gaily performing acrobatics in the rigging. The exotic animals, such as tigers, deer, monkeys and caged birds, which were imported to serve as gifts to the Japanese authorities, are also featured prominently. As a result the Nanban byobu are extraordinarily attractive to both Japanese and foreigners alike, and they contain great social, historical and artistic interest.

From the artistic point of view these byobu belong to the best of Japanese decorative painting and illustrate the high level reached in screen production during the Momoyama and Edo periods. The screens are made of paper stuck upon a wooden framework; only the traditional pigments were used to paint the scenes. The characteristics of the Kano school are most noticeable, for the screens possess clarity of composition, chromatic richness and a uniform gold background; no influence of Western perspective or chiaroscuro can be observed. Only the original theme distinguishes these screens from the more conventional products of the Kano and other Japanese Schools. Although artists of the Tosa and Sumiyoshi schools apparently produced some Nanban screens, it was the Kano painters who most distinguished themselves in this type of work. The Kano was probably the only School that made a real effort to assimilate Western culture so as to inject new life and vitality into Japan's long pictorial history. In the words of a modern critic:

"It is most interesting to speculate that European culture was probably the impetus to that process in which the Kano School put off the old and became a School of gorgeous wall painting, taking into itself also other elements of the yamato-e school. The contact of the two cultures, however, was to be severed before its tremendous possibilities could be realized."

Portuguese merchants in Nagasaki, nanban screen atributed to Kano Mitsunobu. The artist has painted the scene from close-ups and as a result a great deal of interesting detail can be seen clearly. His accurate portrayal of scenes inside the Jesuit residence shows that he was familiar with the life of the missionaries.

The central object of interest in most of the Nanban screens is undoubtedly the Portuguese ship. The nao do trato, which plied between Lisbon, Goa, Macao and Nagasaki, was known to the Japanese as the kurofune, the "black ship," or Nanban bune, the "Nanban ship." It was a three-deck carrack of between one thousand and sixteen hundred tons, an enormous size for those days, and the admiration of the Japanese at such an imposing sight is not surprising. One can well imagine the excitement felt by the European and Japanese citizens of Nagasaki when news of the ship's impending arrival was received, and João Rodrigues in his Japanese grammar published in 1608 quotes the phrase yarayara medetaya, Nanbanbune ga tsukimashita -- "Rejoice! the Nanban ship has arrived!" So great was the impression caused by the nao that the depiction of the ship often takes up half the screen; sometimes in fact the ship is shown twice in a pair of screens, once as she sails from Goa and the second time as she lies at anchor in Nagasaki harbor.

Although the scenes on land in most of the screens are fairly similar in content, they all contain different details illustrating various aspects of the encounter between the Europeans and Japanese. They show the colorful dress of the Portuguese merchants and the religious habits of the Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries; the screens, in fact, are about the only source of information about the dress worn at that time by the Portuguese in the Far East. The pictures also demonstrate the European influence on Japanese costume, for some of the Nagasaki citizens are depicted wearing an adapted form of bombacha, or baggy trousers tied tightly at the waist and ankles. The missionary churches and residences are shown in some detail, and it can be noted that they were built according to Japanese style with some additional Western features. The accurate depiction of not only the exterior but also the interior of these buildings suggests that the painters were familiar with the missionaries' lives, and it is quite possible that some of the artists had studied at the Jesuit seminary. The name of at least one Christian painter of the Kano School, Pedro Kano, is mentioned in contemporary letters.

The nanban ship at Nagasaqui. Detail from a pair of six-pannel nanban screens, signed by Kano Naizen; shows the great Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki harbor. The depiction of the alarming acrobatic feats of the crew in the rigging is traditional and may be seen in pictures of Japanese ships.

The pair of six-panel screens in the possession of the Imperial Household was presented to the royal collection by the Tokugawa family at the beginning of the Meiji period (1868-1912), and it bears all the characteristics of the Kano School. As usual the first of the pair shows the arrival of the ship at Nagasaki, while in the second, the procession of the captain-major has just reached the gate of the Jesuit residence. In the upper right-hand comer, figures can be seen in a chapel kneeling around a picture of Christ. Various details have been included to add to the interest of the work; some Japanese, wearing Portuguese-style clothing, are standing in shop doorways looking on at the colorful spectacle, although the arrival of the Europeans does not appear to have distracted the attention of the two ladies playing a game of dice. In general the work tends to be overcrowded with too many figures, and as a result a rather unnatural impression is given. Perhaps this was the first time the artist had painted a Nanban screen, and he lacked the necessary experience to produce a more satisfactory composition, for he appears to have introduced into this one work practically all the general characteristics of this type of screen.

The pair of screens at Kobe is signed by Kano Naizen and is a more polished work. In the first screen the great ship is seen leaving Goa, while various Portuguese dignitaries gather at the harbor to watch the departure. The usual negro attendants carrying large parasols are shown, and even a placid-looking elephant, bearing a Portuguese official in a decorated howdah, has been included. The ornate buildings are depicted in half-Indian and half-Chinese style, since the artist was presumably unfamiliar with Goa and hence somewhat vague about the details of the architecture to be found there. In the second screen the same ship is now safely in Nagasaki harbor, with its sailed furled as the captain-major leads the imposing procession to the mission residence. Behind him march the colorfully dressed Portuguese, and servants carry a caged tiger and lead a prancing white horse. A group of Jesuit priests and novices, as well as two friars and an elderly dojuku, or "catechist," are waiting to greet the disembarking Portuguese. On a higher plane can be seen a chapel in which a priest is celebrating Mass, and to the left a glimpse of the interior of the Jesuit residence is given. The division between the chapel in the higher plane and the missionaries in the lower is filled as usual by clouds and pine trees in accordance with the style of the Kano School. The composition of the work is well thought out and the chromatic quality is quite extraordinary. The bright colors stand out splendidly against the gold background and provide a fine decorative element. A pair of Nanban screens preserved at Lisbon also bears the stamp of Kano Naizen and have a practically identical composition -- Goa in the first screen (with an extra elephant added) and the procession at Nagasaki in the second.

The screens in the Suntory Art Museum, Tokyo, are of special interest, for they display various features not to be found in other works of this type. In the first screen there is a detailed depiction of the Japanese port, with the usual church, residence and shops; Japanese and Europeans are gathered near the quay, where merchandise is being unloaded from a small lighter. The work is generally lacking in naturalness and the figures of the missionaries appear somewhat stiff, but the artist has shown considerable ingenuity in uniting so many elements into such a small space. In the second screen, by way of exception, the nao does not appear. Instead, richly dressed Portuguese are seated on a terrace, while a type of horse race, called cana, is being run on the near side of what appears to be a canal; some clerical figures view the spectacle from the bridge over the canal and the gateway on the right. The odd hybrid style of architecture, the exotic peacocks and willow tree show that a foreign city is being represented and the general indications point to China. But had the artist had Macao in mind he would have surely featured buildings in pure Chinese style, with which he would have been familiar from Oriental paintings, so the presumption once more is that the picture is meant to show a scene from the city of Goa. As regards the identity of the artist, the name of Kano Sanraku has been suggested, but the attribution is not certain.

The screens at Osaka belonged to an old Sakai family and came to light only in 1962. The style of the painting is quite exquisite, and the pictures are a very fine example of Nanban byobu. Although the customary theme of ship and procession is depicted, two special features may be noted. In the first place, the scenes on the two screens are continuous, and the artist has in effect produced a twelve-panel picture. Secondly, these scenes are viewed from close-up, and, as a result, far more detail can be observed than usual. The ship is shown prominently as its depiction is generously spread over no less than four panels, instead of the more usual two or three. Sailors clamber up the mast and rigging, while others are occupied in manning the two lighters and unloading crates of luggage and merchandise onto the shore. A particularly pleasing effect is obtained by the realistic portrayal of the strong waves, which makes the efforts of a sailor to keep the lighter steady as goods are lowered from the ship seem both necessary and difficult. It many Nanban screens the sea is shown in a static and lifeless way, and only a faint spray may be seen breaking against the bows of the ship; here, on the contrary, the boisterous waves give a real feeling of motion and energy.

In the second screen the captain-major, accompanied by negro slaves carrying not only a large parasol but also a typical Nanban chair, is being greeted by Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries. The citizens of the port peep curiously through doorways and lattices at the resplendent sight, while a bespectacled Jesuit beams myopically in welcome. The principal subject of this screen is undoubtedly the encounter between the newly arrived merchants and the resident missionaries on the main street, but details of great interest may be noted in the mission residence depicted on a higher plane and separated from the activities below by the conventional cloud. In the upper story of a pagoda-like building surmounted by a cross a priest is instructing a young man as a novice enters the room carrying a bowl. In the chapel to the right a Japanese is making his confession to a priest, while four other figures kneel before an altar; two men wearing Portuguese dress squat on the balcony, and nearby a Japanese kisses the hand of a friar. Apparently the artist was perfectly familiar with the missionaries and the activities that took place within their residences. This splendid screen can be definitely attributed to Kano Mitsunobu, and was therefore painted during the Keicho era.

NON - PICTORIAL ART

During the period of contact with the West, but especially in the last decade of the sixteenth century, various customs and features of European life became very popular in Japan. Writing in September, 1594, the Jesuit Francisco Pasio noted that Hideyoshi and his courtiers would often wear Portuguese dress and even carry a rosary; some non-Christians took this fashion for things European a step further and learnt the Pater Noster and Ave Maria by heart in order to recite the prayers in public as a sort of fashionable talisman. An example of this short-lived craze may be seen in the picture of an open-air stage, where the principal actress clearly wears a rosary dangling from her neck. Two Europeans, almost certainly Portuguese, may be seen among the group of spectators, who are portrayed with no little ingenuity and humor. Two members of the audience are smoking pipes, yet another custom introduced from the West.

Metal Tsuba, or "sword guard", decorated with nanban ship (upper plate) worked in gold.

This foreign influence inspired Japanese artists to decorate their work, whether in ceramics, lacquer or metal, with Christian and European designs. Such decoration, however, was not introduced exclusively for the sake of fashion and novelty. Many converts desired to possess objects decorated with Christian motifs, which could be used in their daily lives. These could be displayed openly while the missionaries were free to work in Japan, but were perforce hidden away after Christianity had been proscribed by the Tokugawa authorities. As a result numerous pieces of ceramic and lacquer ware decorated with crosses and other Christian symbols have survived to this day. There were also other objects, such as bells, reliquaries and host boxes, which were made for specific use in the mission churches and chapels. Some of these pieces were probably manufactured in Europe, but many were undoubtedly produced by Japanese artists, inspired by European imports and the work of students trained in the Jesuit seminaries.

METALWORK

During the century of contact with the West special importance was attached to engravings on copper plates by which religious pictures could be easily and cheaply reproduced. The missionaries had an urgent need to multiply such pictures for use in the instruction of catechumens, and engraved pictures could obviously be turned out more quickly than copies painted by hand. The technique of metal engraving was one of the subjects taught at the seminary, and the students' ability won high praise in the Jesuit letters. Some of the engravings have survived to the present day, and they amply demonstrate the skill that the Japanese achieved in this specialized art. The engraving Virgin and Child was made from a copper plate, and is probably the best example of this type of work to be produced in Japan at that time. A Latin inscription at the bottom states that the engraving was made in 1597 at the Jesuit seminary, which was then temporarily situated at Arie in the Shimabara peninsula. This particular copy of the engraving was found in Manila in the last century and taken back to Japan. As the inscription explains, the work is a reproduction of the famous mural decoration Nuestra Señora de Antigua in Seville Cathedral; the Spanish picture was the object of much pious devotion, and it is not surprising that copies found their way to Japan. There are other examples of this type of art, such as Christ and Saint Joseph, but it is not always possible to prove that they are the work of Japanese artists. But the engravings that decorate the frontispiece of some of the books produced by the Jesuit press in Japan were almost certainly made by local artists.

During the missionary century, many Japanese of the military class were converted and received Baptism, and as a consequence Christian or Western emblems may be found on the armor and weapons produced during this period. The part of the sword that was most highly decorated was the tsuba, or "guard," and metalsmiths employed various designs, which differed in each period of Japanese art. Decoration of the tsuba attained a special prominence towards the end of the Muromachi period (1333-1573), and thus this trend coincided with the early part of the mission period. There are still extant many tsuba bearing Christian symbols, such as the cross, and Western designs. It must be borne in mind, however, that the cross is one of the most elementary forms possible of decoration, and it is not always easy to know definitely whether a cross on a tsuba is a genuine Christian symbol or merely a decorative device of no particular religious significance.

Virgin and Child. Copperplate print based on the famous mural painting Nuestra Señora de Antigua in Seville Cathedral. Was produced at the Jesuit seminary in Japan, in 1597, at Arie, Kyushu.

Christian emblems may be found on other parts of a warrior's equipment, and they sometimes figure prominently on suits of armor. Gamo Genzaimon Satonari, one of the principal retainers of the Christian daimyo Gamo Ujisato (1556-95), possessed a suit of armor (preserved in the Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka) that features two large crosses painted in red lacquer, one on the front of the helmet and the other on the back of the corselet. Even more conclusive Christian symbols are to be found on a pair of ornate metal stirrups, which are decorated with a motif of the Passion column, nails, hammer and thorns, skillfully applied with gold and bronze encrustment. It is truly an interesting work in which the artist-craftsman has combined devotional and artistic expression. Another example of the same theme has been found engraved along the barrel of a Japanese arquebus manufactured during the same period.

Among the metal objects connected with the mission in Japan are some bronze bells intended for use in Christian churches. There are three of these extant, and all are in good condition. One of them was cast in 1612 for use in the hospital of Saint James, as its inscription clearly indicates. Another is kept in the Buddhist temple of Myoshin-ji at Kyoto and bears the Jesuit emblem IHS and the date 1577; the bell is said to have belonged to the Jesuit church in the capital, and the inscribed date is certainly consistent with this tradition, but the only definitive information available states that the bell was at one time in Satsuma and was later transferred to a temple in Sendai. A third example is known as the Hosokawa bell, and is decorated with the Kyumon crest of nine balls and a spiraling vegetal border around the rim. The bell belongs to the type called asagao, or "morning glory," as its shape is suposed to resemble that flower. It was presented by the Hosokawa family in 1616 to Mori Tadamasa to commemorate the completion of his castle, but later passed into the possession of the Matsudaira family.

Another kind of metal-work that may be included in the general category of Nanban productions consists of fumi-e, a term that literally means "treading pictures". These were cast metal plaques bearing a picture of Christ or the Virgin Mary and were employed by the Tokugawa authorities to discover secret Christians. The actual plaque was sometimes placed in the middle of a wooden tablet, and citizens were periodically required to trample on the figure as a sign of rejection of Christianity. Many of these fumi-e are still preserved, and in some cases the relief has been worn smooth through constant use. The plaques illustrate examples of Ecce Homo, Pietà and the Rosary, and undoubtedly show a certain ability in the art of metalwork, but on the whole they have a greater historical and religious value than artistic.

Candlestick in shape of a nanban figure, wearing the baggy bombacha type of trousers. Collection of Inosuke Setsu, Tokio.

LACQUER WARE

Lacquer ware has a long tradition in the Orient, and it is not surprising that lacquered objects bearing decorative motifs in Nanban style were produced in some quantity during the period under examination. There was considerable demand for such pieces, since they were used for religious purposes in churches or carefully preserved by Christian families; in addition, many of these pieces were probably bought merely because Nanban decoration was particularly fashionable at the time. In most cases the maki-e technique of lacquering was employed in the manufacture of these articles. The decoration was painted on the lacquered surface, powdered with gold, silver or other metals, and occasionally inlay and incrustation were used. At its simplest, the effect is gained by the metallic powder being sprinkled onto the lacquer while it is still wet; after it has dried, a further coat of lacquer may be applied over the decoration, and a high polish given to the finished product. A most decorative and handsome effect was obtained, and the quality of Japanese lacquering was unrivaled.

The host box shown here was discovered at Hagi in Yamaguchi Prefecture and is now preserved at Osaka. The lid bears the Jesuit emblem, surrounded by the customary circle of rays of light and tongues of fire. The sides of the box are decorated with a motif of ivy branches worked in gold by the maki-e process. There are similar boxes preserved in Tokyo National Museum, in the Toku-gawa collection at Mito and in the Itsuo Museum at Ikeda in Okayama Prefecture.

Also to be found in the Osaka collection is a pair of seal boxes which were used to contain seals engraved with the owner's name and were attached to the sash of the kimono by the cords. The first is decorated with flowered crosses and the ancient Oriental manji, or "swastiça" sign; a box with similar decorative motifs is preserved in Atami Museum. The second of these seal boxes is decorated with two Nanban figures and bears the name of Tsuchida Soetsu. A lacquered saddle, preserved at Kyoto University, also dates from this peried and is of special interest as it clearly bears the letters FRCO. Since this was the monogram used by Otomo Sorin, who received the name Francisco at his baptism in 1578, the saddle was probably commissioned for his personal use. The drum with card decoration is coated with lacquer and bears a decorative motif in gold maki-e featuring the type of playing cards called unsun. Western cards were introduced into Japan by the Europeans, and from these the Japanese produced packs of cards of various types, such as unsun, tensho and sunkun. The drum appears to date from the Tensho era (1573-91), at which time this form of decoration was considered very smart and fashionable. The lacquered card box is also decorated with a design of unsun cards.

Bowl decorated with cross and rice flower design. Nanban Bunka-kan, Osaka.

CERAMICS

The mission century coincided with the Mo-moyama period (1573-1615), when the tea ceremony reached its highest point of development. Valignano laid great stress on the need for missionaries to appreciate this pastime and ordered that every major Jesuit residence should possess a fully equipped tea room where the ceremony could be performed with all due decorum to honor distinguished visitors. Some of the more experienced missionaries knew a great deal about this subject, and João Rodrigues wrote knowl-edgeably about the conventions and purpose of the ceremony in his História da Igreja do Japão. Moreo-ver, some of the leading Christians were renowned for their skill and perception in this aesthetic pastime; in particular, Takayama Ukon distinguished himself in his discernment of the aesthetic values related to the art, and no less than three of the seven famous disciples of the celebrated master Sen no Rikyu (1520-91) were Christian.

Various tea utensils bearing Christian symbols are still preserved from this period, and examples of such chawan, or "tea bowls," may be found in the Osaka collection. One is made in the oribe-yaki style and bears a single white cross against a black background as its only decoration. Another is an example of the raku-yaki style, one of the most typical in the tradition of Japanese tea ceremony ceramics. It bears a tall elongated cross as its sole decoration and possesses great sober beauty in accordance with the Japanese shibui aesthetic.

But Western decoration was not confined only to tea utensils, and other ceramic pieces bearing Christian symbols were produced. Another example of ceramic work decorated with a cross is a bowl, which is probably a product of the Hagi kilns located at the town of that name in Yamaguchi Prefecture. A center of Korean ceramic work was founded in this city, and most of its products bear a characteristic pale color. This particular bowl was discovered at Kyoto. Another bowl, an exotic creation with thick sides, may have been used as a vase, and is decorated with a prominent cross and rays of light.

The field of Nanban art, taken in its widest sense, is so large and fascinating that entire volumes could be, and in fact have been, written about the different aspects of European influence on Japanese culture. In this chapter, however, only a rapid survey of some of the more prominent features of this movement has been possible, and references to related objects (such as Maria Kannon statues and Christian doro, or "stone lanterns") have had to be omitted. Instead of concentrating on a few particular topics, this essay has tried to present a comprehensive account of the main areas of Japanese art in which European influence was most productive and fruitful. But this influence should not be overestimated, and a specialized account runs the risk of giving the impression that the European impact was overwhelming and all-pervading. Such an extreme view is, of course, exaggerated and far from the truth. For every one Nanban byobu painted during this period, dozens of other screens depicting traditional themes were produced by Japanese artists; for every tsuba decorated with a cross, thousands of others were manufactured bearing no relation to Christianity or the West in either design or decoration.

Nevertheless, the European impact was considerable, and the fashion for things Western, at least among the upper classes, reached extraordinary lengths in the last decade of the sixteenth century. Much of this passing enthusiasm was prompted by the return of the Kyushu ambassadors in 1590, with their illustrated books and paintings and their personal reminiscences about the splendor of Renaissance Europe. The same embassy aroused enthusiasm and interest in Europe, but nothing more; the fashion for things European in Japan was not paralleled by a commensurate demand in Europe for things Japanese. It is interesting and instructive to ponder on the reason why the reverse relationship was later to obtain between China and Europe.

It is also interesting and not entirely fruitless to speculate on the probable course of development that Japanese art might have taken if the Europeans had been allowed to remain and work freely in the country. The intemperate enthusiasm for the West would have doubtless subsided to more moderate levels, but the union of artistic techniques and aesthetic concepts might well have matured to produce a unique contribution, neither totally Oriental nor totally European, but truly cosmopolitan, combining the best that East and West had to offer. Such might have been the happy ouctome in ideal circumstances, but in fact this promising development was not allowed to continue. Perhaps the time was not yet ripe for such imaginative cooperation between peoples of radically different cultures. But a study of the art influenced by the arrival of the Southern Barbarians in Japan provides an intriguing glimpse of an enterprise, which, even if not wholly successful, managed for a time to transcend national and cultural boundaries.

Publication authorized by Professor Michael Cooper of the University of Sophia, Tokyo. RC is responsable for the illustrations and captions added.

Poster R. C

"Doze Cidades do Ocidente" — um painel típico do género, destinado a dar conhecimento aos Japoneses das principais cidades ocidentais.

Este tem a particularidade do mapa de Portugal em destaque.

(Séc. XVII, Museu de Arte Nanban de Osaka).

*Entered the Society of Jesus in 1946 and went to Japan in 1956. He graduated from Barcelona University, and belongs to the faculty of Sophia University. Author of "El arte de Japón" (1967) and numerous articles on Spanish and Japanese art.

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