17 CHAPTER XVII
Regarding the greatness, bounty, richness and power of the Chinese Kingdom.

The [Chinese] Kingdom is situated beneath the Tropic of Capricorn, with a coastal extension from north to south of more than five-hundred leagues. The southeastern part is the kingdom of Cochinchina, and the northeastern region borders with the Tartar kingdom, which does encircle the greatest area of this country. On the western side, there is another kingdom inhabited by white people, which is further over there than Persia, which is called Cathay. • 1 There are Christians {i. e., Catholics} * there and they call their king Manuel. It is almost certain that from the confines of this kingdom [China] until Jerusalem there would be an overland journey of more than six months, which is known from the Indians who came from the Persian kingdom, who confirmed having been in Jerusalem six months prior; some of which said they had been across Arabia Felix2 and had crossed the Red Sea.

The other quarter of this kingdom is surrounded by a very rugged mountain range, whose cordillera measures five-hundred leagues and where, as nature has opened up some parts, it stretches north from the northeastern part up to a distance of eighty leagues from the Sea of Japan, which is east from it. The great richness of this kingdom and the number of inhabitants there are enable them to overcome this and the way they did is told in the first part of this História [...] {Historie [...]} account. As the king of this kingdom, seeing himself pursued by the Tartar King, decided that he could easily defend himself by closing off that gap which nature had left open, he ordered the construction {of the wall}, costing the lives of thousands of men, thereby making use of great oppression, which was later the be the cause of his death. 3 This mountain, which is a man made addition, is the famous 'wall' of the kingdom of China, which is five hundred leagues [in length]4, although one has to understand how it was done on order to believe that only eighty were built by human hand, with a lot of hard work, having endless fortifications in it which made it more beautiful and stronger, but as strong as the other four hundred and twenty leagues which were nature's work.

Near the wall there is a huge desert full of swamps and lakes, 5 which was the reason why this kingdom kept its area for two thousand years, which seems to be so, according to their own history which they maintain is true and authentic. The country is divided into fifteen provinces, like that of Hunan, • and each one of them has a main city from which it takes its name. 6 In the middle of this land there is a very large lake, from which many mighty rivers flow and run all over the land, which is so large that it is navigable all over by boats, frigates, brigs, and all other types of vessels. 7 This abundance of water makes the land very fertile and very well supplied, as along the river banks they have built the majority of cities and dwellings, connecting each one with all the other provinces, transporting a lot of merchandise from one to the other, and other objects of great curiosity. And as they do so with little expense, goods are all very cheap.

This kingdom's maritime coast is the largest and best known in the world; five provinces are situated along it, which are Guangdong, • Fujian, • Zhejiang, • Nanzhili• and Beizhili, • 8 which is the last heading up to the northeast and is where the king resides, his Council, who are usually at Court, and the majority of the War Ministry he has, and all to confine this province from the area with their enemies, the Tartars. Some say that the reasons why the king usually lived there is due to the fact that it is the best and most fertile region in the kingdom. Yet I believe, according to what some Chinese say, that it was not just this but moreover due to being near the Tartar Kingdom, and to locate themselves where they could have access to the resources which the enemy needed to survive. Between the branches of these rivers there are some islands which are made very good use of throughout the kingdom, as they rear a lot of deer on them, and pigs and other animals, being the reason why the cities are so well provided for.

Vessel.

One of the most surprising things that one sees in the kingdom is the infinite number of ships and boats which they have in all their ports, which are so many that in the city of Macao there were men who bet that only on the Cantão• river there were more ships and vessels than in all the coast of Spain. There is one thing that I can confirm, which I heard said by people I can trust who were in this kingdom, and especially Fr. {Martín} Ignácio [de Loyola], who I am following in this Itinerário [...] {Itinerary[...]}, that it is easier in any of the five provinces which are on the sea coast to gather a thousand warships, and all dedicated to this purpose, whereas in Spain one could find ten. The reason why there are so many ships was already referred to in a chapter on this.

There are different opinions concerning the grandeur of this kingdom; however almost all of them agree with that of Friar Martín de Rada, which, as a great exponent of geometry and mathematics, sheds better light on the question. His opinion is reported in the first part [of this História [...] {Historie [...]}], 9to which one can refer [the interested reader], just as with everything that has to do with specific aspects of the kingdom [of China], having been extensively noted down, with the written accounts from his writings as a basis. However there is one thing which I cannot leave unsaid, as for me it seems worthy of having particular reference made to it, more so that I leaned of this straight from the aforementioned Friar {Martín} Ignácio [de Loyola]. They told him as something quite certain and able to be substantiated, that every day of the year, without exception, nine thousand people die, both young and old, in all the kingdom's provinces; and this is in spite of there not being any plagues or wars, nor famines, nor other occasional events, nor in that kingdom that they recall [any catastrophes] which have occurred, nor is any reference regarding this found in their History, which is written from two thousand years ago. This is a great sorrow for those, who with Christian fervour, are aware of this very serious tribute of so many souls taken by the devil each day, which [so a great number of them] are taken to the infernal depths.

The fertility of this land is so great, even in relationship to normal irrigation, as to the temperamental climate, that almost every year there is harvest, especially of rice and wheat, to such an extent that both are cheap. This happened to us, in the courses of our pilgrimage, as we brought a picul10 of rice or wheat flour, which are the equivalent of five arrobas in Spain, for the cost of one and a half reais^[19] and so was everything else was too, as already said.

They say that there are a lot of elephants lions, tigers, pumas, and other wild animals living inland, among whom these Friars have seen few alive but many stuffed, which they regarded as proof. 11There are many musk animals, which are the same size and similar to small dogs, which are killed and buried for several days, and the blood and flesh already convert into odorous powders [musk] before going rotten. 12 There are also a lot of civet cats, which are of little value, and a great number of horses, and in spite of the said Friars having only seen small horses, it is widely known that in some of the fifteen provinces there are those of a good size. However, as these provinces cannot be reached, they have not had the opportunity to verify it for themselves. The chickens,geese, ducks and other birds which exist all over this kingdom are countless; and for this reason they are uncountable; and fish are equally in abundance, both fresh water and sea water. In this respect everyone who has reported on this country is in agreement, just like the low prices they sell for [all these goods], and this was confirmed to me by Friar {Martín} [Ignácio de Loyola] and others who were in that kingdom. They said that four people could easily eat meat, fish, rice and fruit, and drink good wine from that country for six maravedis. 13

There are many gold and silver mines all over the country, and all of them are very rich. The king does not allow them to be exploited, except under strict controls, saying that what they do not already have in their homes they can bring from other kingdoms. All in all, there is such an abundance of gold and silver, and they are so common [both metals], that there is not a man, even if an artisan, who does not have silver and gold objects in their homes, along with other very costly objects. They value silver more than gold, and they say it is for this reason that gold prices fluctuate, like in Italy. As far as silver is concerned, it is always at its true value. There are a lot of pearls, especially from the Island of Hainan, • and a great abundance of mercury, copper, iron, steel, brass, tin, lead, saltpetre, sulphur, and other ores which generally form part of the kingdom's riches, and above all there is a lot of musk and amber. 14

It is said that this kingdom's king, apart from the great taxes he receives, has enormous treasures in all the main cities which are the capital of each province. In the city of Guangzhou, it was affirmed as quite certain to Friar {Martín} [Ignácio de Loyola], that all the money that came into that place for five hundred years, equally through Portuguese sources as through the kingdoms of Siam and other [kingdoms] nearby, along with all the provincial taxes, were gathered together in the city's royal treasury and came to total, according to rounded off calculations, of far more millions than one would like to mention.

It is so commonplace among this kingdom's people to use silk clothing, like in Europe using ordinary cloth, using silk for satin shoes, often in brocade, with elegant designs. This has happened because of silk's great abundance throughout the kingdom, and the quantity is such that more than three thousand quintais15leave the city of Guangzhou for India and Portugal every year, not counting the many other [quintais]which are taken to Japan, nor the more or less fifteen ships which travel to the island of Luzon, 16 nor even the enormous quantity of silk which the Siamese take 17, along with other countries. Even with all these exports, there is still enough [silk] within the kingdom to fill several fleets. There is also a lot of linen, cotton and other fabrics, and all of them are worth so little, which was confirmed by Friar {Martín} Ignácio [de Loyola], having seen a canga, 18 which is fifteen yards, for four reais. 19

Words cannot describe the fine crockery [of porcelain] which is found in this country. That brought to Portugal is very crude, although for those who have never seen other fine crockery it seems good. Nevertheless, there is such a great quantity of [fine china] there that a single service of theirs would be valued like gold among us. The finest [porcelain] cannot be taken out of the country, under penalty of death, and only the Louteas, • 20who are noblemen, can use it. There are still great quantities of sugar, honey and wax, just as cheap as mentioned earlier. And to sum up, I would say that they live with such abundance that all of them have a surplus and no lack of any materials. However they lack the main thing, which is the help of the soul, as in the discourse of this account we repeatedly see. God help them as He may.

The taxes which the king of this kingdom has were revealed in a separate chapter, and here I would like to add that which Friar {Martín} Ignácio [de Loyola] tells me, that only from one river called the Sal, in the province of Guangdong, he receives [the king] one and a half million per annum. And apart from that, the ordinary annual taxes are high, surpassing those of the greatest kings known in the world. The treasuries which [this king] collects and keeps, if it is true what the Chinese say, in all the main cities of the fifteen provinces, far surpass what many kings have if it were added together.

All the cities and towns in this kingdom are enclosed with walls made of masonry, with fortifications every fifty paces, usually surrounded by a river or a very deep trench which could be filled with water, which defends them well. They do not use castles nor do they have them, having only some turrets over the city gates, as I have already described, and there they place all the artillery available for the defence of the said town or city. They use different types of weapons, especially arquebuses, bows and lances of three or four types, and also swords, which are like spears, and roundels. 21 When they enter into battle, all the soldiers wear long clothes of well quilted cotton down to their knees which resist a lance's throw or a sword's thrust.

Ewer.

Chinese export porcelain with decoration in underglaze blue. ca1520.

Medeiros e Almeida Foundation Collection, Lisbon.

In: DIAS, Pedro, coord., Símbolos e Imagens do Cristianismo na Porcelana Chinesa, Lisboa, Santa Casa da Misericórdia - Comissão para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1996, p.33.

Those who are [soldiers] and receive a royal military salary, wear coloured or yellow hats with their own insignia, having so many of them, both militia and cavalry, that it is almost impossible for them to be counted. And it is a common opinion held among most of those who were in this kingdom and saw them, that not even all the [soldiers] of Spain, France and those of Greater Turkey combined would surpass theirs in number. There are captains per ten soldiers, a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand and twenty thousand, and similarly up until a hundred thousand. All these captains are distinguished according to the number of soldiers they command by certain insignias worn by each one. They make an inventory and review the troops every new moon, and on that same day, without fail, the pay the soldiers' wages. The payment has to be in silver and not in any other money. Those who have seen this payment being made say, and particularly Friar {Martín} [Ignácio de Loyola], that they give a small piece of silver which would weigh as much as a Spanish real and a half, and this is more for them than four Escudos for us, considering how much things are. In this kingdom, the day they receive the salary, each one has to demonstrate their skill at using weapons before the inspectors; and all those who do not exercise sufficient dexterity are reprimanded and harshly punished. They fight in strict formation, capable of rivalling any nation in this world with regard to obedience to their captains and the signals they are accustomed to use when at war.

*Translator's note: Words or expressions between curly brackets occur only in the English translation.

Translated from the Portuguese by: Linda Pearce

For the Portuguese translation see:

LOYOLA, Martín Ignácio de, LOUREIRO, Rui Manuel, intro., História do Grande Reino da China, in "Antologia Documental: Visões da China na Literatura Ibérica dos Séculos XVI e XVII", in "Revista de Cultura":, Macau, 31 (2) Abril-Junho [April-June] 1997, pp. 117-120 - For the Portuguese modernised translation by the author of the Spanish (Castilian) original text, with words or expressions between square brackets added to clarify the meaning.

For the original source of the Portuguese translation, see:

LOYOLA, Ignácio de, Martín, IDÍGORAS, José Ignácio Tellechea, ed., Viaje alrededor del Mundo, Madrid, (Historia16), 1989, pp. 152-167- Partial translation from Spanish.

NOTES

Numeration without punctuation marks follow that in Domingo Navarrete's original text selected in Rui Loureiro's edited text in "Revista de Cultura" (Portuguese edition), Macau, 31 (2) Abril-Junho [April-June] 1997, p.120.

The spelling of Rui Loureiro's edited text [Port.] is indicated between quotation marks and in italics 《" "》 - unless the spelling of the original Spanish [Span.] text is indicated.

1 "Cataio"• [original Span.] ("Cathay"): the localisation of Cathay, which in 1575 was identified with China by Friar Martín de Rada, is somewhat confusing. Here the author refers to Tibet, • to which Portuguese sources would later give the same title.

2 "[...] Arábia feliz [...]" [Port.] ("[...] Arabia Felix [...]" or lit.: 'Prosperous Arabia', 'Blissful Arabia'): an ancient name ascribed to North Yemen [presently Yemen Arab Republic].

3 The Great Wall was constructed by the Qin• Emperor Shi Huangdi• (AD r.221-†206).

4 The Great Wall is approximately six thousand kilometres long. [sic]

5 "[...] grande deserto cheio de pantanais e lagoas, [...]"[Port.] ([...] huge desert full of swamps and lakes, [...]"): the Gobi desert.

6 European observers often used the name of provincial capitals to designate the actual provinces.

7 European knowledge of the Chinese hidrographical system was quite negligible, given as the beginning of misconceptions of this type. China was in fact covered by a dense network of rivers and canals, which facilitated internal communication.

8 Provinces of "Cantão"• [Port.] or 'Guangdong' ("guangdong") = Guangdong[Chin.], "Chincheu"• [Port.] or 'Fuquiém'("Fujian") = Fujian[Chin.], "Liampó" • [Port.] or 'Chequião' ("Zhejiang") = Zhejiang[Chin.], "Nanquim"• [Port.] or 'Nanzhili' ("Nanzhili") = Nanzhili[Chin.], and "Pequim"• [Port.] or 'Beizhili'("Beizhili")= Beizhili[Chin.]. The province of Shandong, • also on the coast, is missing from this list.

9 Friar Juan González de Mendoza was following the text by Friar Martín de Rada, which disappeared; and here refers to previous chapters is his Historia De Las Cosas Mas Notables, Ritos Y Costumbres Del gran reYno de La China [...] (The Historie of the Great and Mightie Kingdom of China [...]). (See: Text 16 - Juan González de Mendonza)

10 "pico" [Port.] ("picul"): an Oriental (Malay and Javanese) and Chinese measure of weight of about sixty kilograms.

11 Some of these animals do not exist in China.

12 The musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus), a common ruminant native of the Tibetan plains, produces musk in his preputial follicles. Extracting it means killing the animal, a fact which was perhaps the origin of the these somewhat fantastical ideas.

13 "maravedi"[original Span.] ("maravedi"): a [Spanish] monetary unit worth twenty seven reales.

14 On the contrary to what the author confirms, ambergris does not exist in China, being well sought after before as rejuvenating properties were attributed to it.

15 "quintal"[Port.]("quintal"): a measure of weight of fifty nine kilograms.

16 "Lução" [Port.] ("Luzon"): the biggest Island in the Philippines.

17 "siamês" [Port.] ("Siamese"): the natives from Siam [presently Thailand].

18 "canga"[original Span.] ("canga"): appears in the Luso-Asian glossaries as the name of a cotton weave and not as a measurement of length.

19 "reais"[original Span.] [singular: 'real']or 'real' [Port.] ("reais")[singular: 'real']: a monetary unit worth forty reis[Span.] or réis[Port].

20 "loutia[s]"• [original Span.] ("Loutea[s]") = laodie• [Chin.]: literaly meaning, 'venerable father' - an honourable attribution to high ranking Chinese officials.

21 "rodela" [Port.] (lit.: "roundel"): meaning in this context, 'a small round shield'.